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A MANUAL OF HOME MAKING 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 





Plate I. — Digniiird houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted fur country lioinis 



A 
MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 



COMPILED BY 

MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER 
FLORA ROSE HELEN CANON 

OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS, NEW YORK COLLEGE 
OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



Nrm fork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1919 

All rights reserved 



<^' 



a6 

■4^ 



COPYRIOIIT, 1919 

By the MACMILLAN COMPAQ V 
Sot up unil c'lectrot.\'ped. Published February, 1919 



FEB 26 1919 

©CI. A 5 I 1743 



STATEMENT BY THE EDITOTl 



Herein is brought together a collection of precepts and ad- 
vice on the setting up and management of a home. The book 
is written and compiled primarily for those women who are 
managing households, not for those who are teaching or who 
are students in the class-room. It has been the purpose to 
bring together from many reliable sources the guiding rules 
to be followed in making the home a place where the family 
can live a thrifty and joyous life. It is compiled by those 
who understand the subject and the situation. 

Chapters on hygiene and sanitation were prepared by the 
authors, but space would not allow of their inclusion. This 
is a source of much regret, but the omission allowed a fuller 
treatment to be retained in the remaining chapters. 

The book is intended primarily for rural conditions. The 
country home should receive as careful and considerate atten- 
tion as the farm itself. The home is inseparable from the farm. 
Yet, as the principles and practices of home-making are the 
same in country and town, the book should actually meet the 
needs of a wide range of people. 

The Editor is glad to add a book in his series on the work 
and welfare of women, and he hopes it will not be the last. 
The woman's work and the man's work together make the 
welfare of any people secure. 

L. H. BAILEY. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS 



CHAPTER I 



The Modern House 

Arrangement of the house 

The farmhouse 

Farmhouse planning 

Exterior design . 

Cost of building . 

Suggestions for making alterations 



CHAPTER II 

Home Furnishing 

Structural consideration of rooms 

Color 

Pattern 

Selection of furnishings 

Furniture . 

Arrangement of furnishings 

Character of rooms expressed by furnishings 



CHAPTER III 



Planning the Home Kitchen 
Use of the kitchen 
Exposure 
Size . 
Doors 
Windows 
Arrangement of equipment 
Discussion of plans 



PAGE 

1 

2 

7 

8 

21 

25 

27 



29 
30 
45 
51 
54 
78 
92 
95 



100 
100 
102 
103 
103 
104 
105 
110 



\ 111 



CONTENTS 



Pantries and closets 
Interior finish 



i'a<;k 
112 
lis 



PART II 
HOUSEHOLD MA N A CiEMENT 

CllAi'Ti:!; i\ 

Cahk of Tin; House . 
Cellar. 
Kitehen 

LivinK-rooin and dining-room 
Sleepinp-rooins 
Bathroom 

Suggestions for sweeping and dusting 
Repair kit . 
Some special directions for cleaning 

CHAPTER V 

Household Measurements and tiieik Use 
Measurements for commodities 
Temperature 

Time ..... 
Measuring gas 
Measuring electricity . 
Measuring water. 
Density of liquids 
Ivitchen measures 

CHAPTER VI 

Household Records 

How to keej) household records 
Household ac(>ounts .... 



CHAPTER VII 



Heat and Light 
Care of fires 
Radiation . 



VI \ 

r_'i 
r_'2 
vi:i 
vii 

123 
124 
124 
125 



120 
12<> 
131 
138 
143 
147 
lol 
153 
loO 



17.-1 
17(i 

177 



191 

im 

191 



CONTENTS 



IX 



Comparative cost of various methods of heating 
Factors governing consumption of fuel and convenience of oper- 
ation .......... 

Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace . . . . 

Advantages and disadvantages of various fuels 

Lighting ..... . . . . 



PAGE 

192 

193 
198 
200 
200 



CHAPTER VIII 



Stoves and Cookers 



207 



CHAPTER IX 
Methods of Keeping Foods Cool 



220 



CHAPTER X 

Kitchen Utensils ...... 

Utensils best adapted to various cooking processes 

Special utensils and equipment 

Arrangement of utensils 

How to prepare new utensils for use 

How to protect metals not in use . 

Materials and their care 



225 
225 
228 
230 
231 
232 
232 



CHAPTER XI 



Table Setting and Serving 
Table setting 
Table service 
Some table manners and customs 



240 
240 
244 
247 



CHAPTER XII 



The Laundry 
Fabrics 
Water 
Soap 
Starch 
Bluing 
Washing 



249 
249 
250 
253 
257 
261 
261 



rnxTKXTS 



Mlcacliiiin .... 
E(iiii|)in<iit f(ir till- hmiidrv 

CIIAI'II'.R .\in 

St.\i\ Ur,Mov.\L . . 

Methods for troatniont of stains in Kcnerul 
Specific methods for indivithial stains 



PA<iK 

•J7:{ 

i'7:{ 
L'7<» 



2S2 

'JS4 

2S7 



I'.Mir III 

CLOTHING 



CllArTEll XIV 



Tkxtiles . 
Cotton 
Linen . 

Wool . 

Silk . 

Artificial silk 

Ramie 

Jute . 

Tests for fabrics 

Weave 



CHAPTER XV 



Tin; M.vKiNG OF Clothing. 

Ecjuipment for the sewing room 

rr('i)aration of materials 

How to take measurements . 

Kinds of patterns 

How to estimate the amount of material 

How to place the pattern on the material 

How to mark a pattern for basting 

How to cut a garment ... 

How to baste a simple garment 

Kinds of seams for garments. 



307 
.307 
312 
31.5 
321 
324 
325 
325 
326 
329 



330 
334 
336 
33S 
340 
342 
344 
348 
352 
353 
358 



CONTENTS 



XI 



How to make a foundation belt .... 

Fitting garments ...... 

How to make a skirt even at the bottom 

How to keep bias seams from sagging 

Suggestive finishes to be used by the home worker . 

Suitable materials for various types of dresses and waists 

Suggestions for economy in dress 

Making simple undergarments 

Clothing for children . 

Patching .... 

Cloth darning 
Stocking darning. 

CHAPTER XVI 

Millinery ...... 

How to select a hat .... 

Renovating materials .... 

Simple handmade trimmings . 



PAGE 

359 
360 
363 
364 
364 
369 
369 
369 
381 
388 
389 
391 



393 
393 
400 
404 



PART IV 
FOODS AND NUTRITION 

CHAPTER XVII 

Planning the Daily Meals .... 
Good foods for supplying the body's needs 
How to estimate the daily need of fuel . 
How to estimate the daily need of protein 
How to estimate the daily need of lime, iron and ph 
Some rules for planning meals 
Food for the prospective mother . 
Food for the nursing mother .... 
Formulas for infant feeding ... 

The part milk should play in the diet during growth 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Marketing for the Household 

Buying fresh or staple foodstuffs . 

Buying canned foods ..... 





407 
408 




412 




414 


losphorus 


415 




425 




433 




434 




435 


h 


436 




438 




439 




445 



XII 



rnxTFXTS 



(11 \i'i i:i; \'i\ 

looD FOR THK Sick ...... 

Kluiil diet. ... 

Soft or semi-solid diet . 

Light or convalescent diet 

Care and feeding for incipient colds 

Care aiul feeding for constipation . 

Diet during a condition of intestinal putrefaction 

Care and diet for indigestion. 

Diet in fever .... 

Modified milk diets for typhoid fever 
Food for tuberculosis patients 



Beverages 
Coffee 
Tea . 
Cocoa 
Fruit juices. 



CIIAITER XX 



CHAPTER XXI 



Batters and Doughs 
Classification 
Ingredients 
Methods of mixing 
Utensils for leaking 
Filling the pans . 
Baking 



CHAPTER XXII 



Cakes .... 
Cakes made with yeast 
Sponge cakes 
Butter cakes 

Ingredients u.sed in cakes 
Cake fillings 
Cake frostings 



CONTENTS 
CHAPTER XXIII 



Pastry ...... 

Ingredients 

Characteristics of good pastry 
Directions for making plain pastry 
Directions for making flaky pastry 
Directions for making puff pastry . 



xm 



PAGE 

490 
490 
491 
492 
493 
494 



CHAPTER XXIV 



Yeast Bread . 
Ingredients . 
Mixing and kneading 
Fermentation 
Shaping dough 
Proofing 
Baking 

"Rope" in bread 
Recipes 
Salt-rising bread 



Cooking of Cereals 



CHAPTER XXV 



CHAPTER XXVI 

Meat and Poultry .... 
Selection of meat by appearance . 
General rules for cooking 
General directions for soup-making 
Care of meat .... 
Keeping meat .... 
Use of market trimmings and meat fat in cooking 
Chickens and fowls ..... 



495 
495 
498 
499 
499 
499 
500 
500 
501 
505 



506 



510 
510 
512 
514 
516 
519 
519 
524 



CHAPTER XXVII 



Fish and Oysters 
Fish . 
Oysters 



527 
527 
532 



xi\- 



Er.(i(- 



roxriWTs 
(11 \i'i i;i{ x.wm 



Tests ior fri'sh cgns 
Egg cookery 



ciiArrER XXIX 



V'KfiKTABLKS .... 

Cure of vonctiiljlc.s in tlic liuinc 
Cooking of vegetables . 



CHAl'TKR XXX 



Sauces .... 
Wliite sauce 
Butter sauce 
Brown sauces 
Sauces thickened with egg 
Sweet sauces 



PAGE 

5;J4 

535 



5-13 
543 
544 



552 
552 
553 
553 
553 
561 



Salads 

Salad herbs. 
Salad dressings 



Desserts . 
Fruits 

Gelatin des.serts 
Whipped cream 
Junket 
Frozen desserts 



SOGAK CooKiniv 



CHAPTER XXXI 



CHAPTER XXXII 



CHAPTER XXXIII 



CHAPTER XXXI V 



Food Preservation ..... 
Preservation of food l)y low temperatures 



563 
.563 
564 



570 
570 
570 
571 
572 
572 



576 



579 
581 



CONTENTS 








XV 


PAGE 


Drying fruits and vegetables . . . . . . . 588 


Salting vegetables .... 








592 


Canning ...... 








599 


Preservation of meat .... 








622 


Sugar-cured hams, bacons, and tongues . 








624 


Brine salt pork ..... 








626 


Dry-cured pork ..... 








626 


Pickled pigs' feet ..... 








626 


Head-cheese ..... 








627 


Lard ...... 








627 


Corned beef ..... 








628 


Dried beef ...... 








629 


Pickled beef tongues .... 








629 


Hamburg steak ..... 








630 


Mixed sausage ..... 








630 


Pork sausage . . . « . 








630 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 

1 . Floor plans of a small house ..... 

2. The first floor plan of a suburban house 

3. A typical arrangement of all rooms on one floor 

4. A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor . 

5. A remodeled farmhouse, to illustrate step-saving 

6. First floor plan, showing living area and working area. 

7. Second floor plan, showing sleeping area 

8. A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners . 

9. Plan showing simplicity of living area . 

10. Plan showing well-organized arrangement 

11. A house planned for farm life and farm conditions . 

12. A modest farm cottage of good design . 

13. A typical low room in an old-fashioned cottage 

14. The same type of low room as in Fig. 13 

15. A tall room of the late nineteenth-century type 

16. A typical modern living-room .... 

17. A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space 

18. Types of window's . . 

19. A method of hanging two sets of curtains 

20. Four methods of curtaining a double-hung window . 

21. Two methods of curtaining a group of windows 

22. Three arrangements of valance and curtain . 

23. Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim 

24. A group of typical side chairs 

25. Four good table forms for use in dining-room or hbrary 

26. Types of Colonial chairs ..... 

27. Comfortable arm-chairs for general use . 

28. Three good forms of couches .... 

29. Typical small tables of good form and finish . 

30. Good types of lamps ...... 

31. Arrangement of rugs in living room 

32. Arrangement of rugs in living rooms 

33. Arrangement of furniture in a square dining-room . 

34. Arrangement of a large kitchen .... 



xviii iJJJsrh'.\Ti()\s 

rUl. PAOE 

3'). Arrjiunctnont of !i f.'iriiiiiDUsc kitclicii 111 

'.](\. ArriiiiKf'iiiciil of a kit<hcii for a sulnirhan house 112 

37. I'laii showinn l<i>'"li<''i iirraiiK<'niciits li;i 

3S. A coiniilctc and convenient kitchen for any house 114 
31). Tiic |>a.s.«-|)atitry or .servinn-pantry .115 

40. Comparison of scales for ineasurinj^ temperature 1.T2 

41. The index of a pa.s meter . . 1 13 

42. Clas meter index reading 7!),.')()<) cul)i<' feet I 1 1 

43. Dial of a watlhour motor ....... ^117 

44. Dial of a watlhoiir motor ....... 148 

45. Ordinary form of wator-motor dial ..... 151 

46. Comparison of amount of li^ht niven liy dilTorent gas lamps 202 

47. Comparison of amount of li^lit nivon \>y difToront electric lamps 203 

48. Cost of producinf!; a jj;iven amount of lifiht by various illumi- 

nants at usual prices ...... 204 

49. Diagram of a homo-mado firolo.s.s cookor .215 

50. An iceloss rofrigorator ....... 222 

51. Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator 223 

52. Methods of folding underwear ...... 275 

53. A method of folding sheet.s and tablecloths .... 276 

54. Another method of folding shoots. ..... 277 

55. A method of folding nightdresses and shirts . 278 

56. A sleeve-board ...... 280 

57. Cotton fibers, showing the characteristic twist . 308 

58. Linen fibers, showing the characteristic nodes and longitudinal 

striations ......... 313 

59. Wool fiber, showing the characteristic scales and the serrated 

surface ......... 316 

60. Silk fiber, showing the two minute filaments from the .spinnerets 

of the silk worm ........ 319 

61. Method of .shrinking fullness out of a garment . 336 

62. Method of taking measurements ...... 338 

63. Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern .... 342 

64. Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern .... 343 

65. Cutting and opening a .shirt-w;ust pattern to throw in fullness . 344 

66. Increasing or decreasing l)ust measure of a shirt-waist pattern . 345 

67. Method of decreasing the size of a shirt-waist pattern 346 

68. Method of lengthening a waist pattern for a very full bust or 

round shoulders ........ 347 

69. Method used in modeling garments over a flat pattern . 348 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



XlX 



FIG. PAGE 

70. Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders. ..... 349 

71. Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern ..... 349 

72. Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling effect . . 350 

73. Changing length or width of skirt pattern .... 351 

74. Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern . . . 351 

75. Decreasing the size of the hips of a gored skirt pattern . . 352 

76. Adjusting a skirt pattern for a person who has a prominent 

abdomen or hips ........ 353 

77. Another method of adjusting a gored skirt pattern for a figure 

with prominent abdomen ... ... 354 

78. Method of adding material to a gored skirt pattern . . . 355 

79. Designing narrow or full circular skirt pattern . . . 356 

80. Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce . . . 357 

81. Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress . 359 

82. Combinations of simple embroidery stitches .... 366 

83. Set-in pocket 368 

84. Method of making a bound buttonhole . . % . . 370 

85. Method of making an arrow ...... 371 

86. Plain seam with edges overcast ...... 374 

87. Plain seams 374 

88. French seam 374 

89. Hemmed fell . 374 

90. Overhanded or French fell ....... 374 

91. Flannel fell 374 

92. Methods of finishing the bottom of drawers .... 377 

93. Methods of finishing the bottom of an underskirt . . . 377 

94. Sateen underskirt with cotton-backed satin flounce finished with 

scalloped facing ........ 377 

95. Bound placket 379 

96. Bound and faced placket ....... 379 

97. Continuous bound and faced placket with fly. . . . 379 

98. Two methods of making a hemmed placket .... 380 

99. Methods of marking positions of buttonholes . . . . 380 

100. Methods of stranding buttonholes 380 

101. Buttonhole stitch 380 

102. Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, and coat . . 383 

103. Suitable designs for dresses for children from three to five years 385 

104. Suitable designs for dresses for children from six to ten years . 385 

105. Suitable designs for dresses for children from ten to twelve 

years .......... 386 



XX 



ILLUSThATlOXS 



via. 

KM). Suitfthlp (IrsiRns for drrsscs for cliildnn fnim twelve to sixt( 

yi'ura 

107. Corrpct sizo of a rrowii, sliown hy tin' heavy line. 

lOS. Incorrect size of crown. ... 

1(H). Correct i)laciiin of a hat, .shown hy tlie heavy line 

110. The prominent lines of tlie hat .shoiilil liarmoiiizi- with the lines 

of the face 

111. Correct placing of a turlian ...... 

ll'J. The outline or decoration of a hat should not repeat or paralh 

undesirable lines in the face ..... 

113. Decoration and structural lines of a hat 

114. Simple decorations ix».ssible in straw trimming 

115. Simple use of ribbon to decorate or change a crown slightly 

116. Stitches for folds, for sewing down facings, and for decoration 

117. French fold, used for decoration around crowns and brims 

118. Cuts of beef 

119. Cuts of mutton . 

120. Cuts of pork 

121. Cellar ventilation 

122. The storage trench 

123. Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack 

124. Commercial hot-water canning outfit for out-of-door w(jrk 

125. Steam cooker ........ 

126. Manner of testing a jar ...... 

127. Position of clamp during sterilization . . . . 

128. Position of clamp after sterilization .... 



I'ACE 

.3S7 

:VM 

395 
395 

396 
39(j 

397 
399 
404 
404 
405 
406 
511 
511 
512 
583 
586 
601 
602 
603 
605 
605 
605 



PLATES 

PLATE 

I. Dignified houses, in plaster and shingle, adapted for country 

homes ........ Frontispiece 

FACING PAGE 

II. Appropriate types of architecture for a suburban or country 

home .......... 24 

III. A group of furnishings showing uncrowded arrangement and 

unobtrusive background. A similar group showing how ob- 
trusive background and crowded arrangement may obliter- 
ate effect of even well-selected furnishings ... 48 

IV. Types of rugs with suitable pattern ..... 52 
V. Types of textile pattern that may be used for upholstery or 

64 
80 
84 
88 
96 
104 

112 
336 

344 
376 

400 
416 



VI. Good types of desks and sideboards .... 
VII. Types of furniture ugly in proportion, etc. . 
VIII. A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools . 
IX. Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture 
X. A good kitchen arrangement ..... 
XI. Shelves for materials to be stored. Utensils in which foods 

may be cooked and served ..... 
XII. Use of form in draping dresses before and after fitting . 

XIII. Draping a waist; a simple skirt with cascade effect on sides 

dress form used in draping ..... 

XIV. Finishes for nightgowns ...... 

XV. Simple and effective designs in small hats. Finishes for corset 

covers ......... 

XVI. Showing lOO-calorie portions of some common foods 



A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 



A MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING 

PART I 
THE HOUSE AND ITS FURNISHINGS 

CHAPTER I 
THE MODERN HOUSE 

By Helen Binkerd Young 

A SOUND house plan is fundamental to the economics of the 
home. A common impulse toward rational living has made it 
necessary to simplify the paraphernalia of existence; to eliminate 
useless tasks and trappings and to arrange the remaining neces- 
sities into an orderly scheme of household life. The arrange- 
ment of the modern house is a direct expression of this point of 
view. The snug, compact dwellings of the present day are 
eloquent records of the scientific trend in home-making. 

Theoretically, the administration of a household under con- 
servation methods implies a perfect dwelling — one in which 
there is an exact adjustment between the worker and the work- 
place; where there is no friction between the housekeeping and 
the house structure; where the interior space and equipment fit 
perfectly the operations of the home. The gap that exists be- 
tween an effective scheme of work and a poor arrangement of 
space represents a permanent element of inconvenience or waste; 
hence the value of a well-considered floor plan. 

The comfort demanded by modern standards of living has 
brought into the erection of the house many new materials, 
many new trades and a great deal of fixed equipment in the 
way of heating, plumbing, and lighting systems, hardwood 

1 



2 .1 M.WIWL or llnME MAKISC 

lloois, and vaiioiis types of liiiilt-iii closets iilid liii iiit iiic. TIk' 
iiiodeiii house is Mccordiiifily a dilTereiil and a more costly prod- 
uct than the dwellings of our fathers. This increase in the cost 
of a cubic foot of the house of to-day, together with the necessity 
to build, heal, and maintain the home economically, has had a 
marked elTect on the size, shape, and arrangement of dwellitifis. 
Small hovisekeeping units, scjuare floor plans, small halls, con- 
tlensed stair arran{z;ements, compact kitchens, Kroujx'd chim- 
neys, and ^i-ouped window treatments are the natural results of 
straightforward i)lannin<z; to meet modern condilif)ns. Intensive 
ii()usekeoi)ing and intensive house-planning are the tendency of 
the times. 

ARRA.NGEMENT OF THE HOUSE 

The plan of the house must be above all a direct and business- 
like arrangement. Every foot of space must be made to count, 
must contribute either to the smoothness of the housework or 
to the elTectivcness of the whole interior. There should be no 
waste nor stagnant space, no idle nor undefined areas. 

The organization of the floor plan should fit the organization 
of home activities. The three phases of dail}' life — work, play, 
and sleep — suggest three divisions of space in the arrangement 
of a dwelling, the living-rooms forming one group, the working 
parts another, and the sleeping-rooms another. JCacli of these 
space groups is distinct in use, in aiiangement, and in the chai- 
acter of its furnishings. 

Conmiunication between these parts is provided by means of 
hall and stairs; in fact the starting point of any plan is a study 
of its circulation or passage. The hall maj', therefore, be con- 
sidered as the kernel of the plan, the distributing center of space. 

The arrangement of the living-rooms should be generous in 
feeling. To this end, wide doorways, groups of windows, and 
long vistas both indoors and out are essential. One large unit 
for general famil}^ use and two or three smaller ones usually 
comprise the living area of the modest house. Some variety 
in the size, shape, and direction of the rooms is desirable in the 
design of the living space. Combinations of oblong rooms of 



THE MODERN HOUSE 3 

different sizes placed at right angles to each other, or of oblong 
and square rooms of different dimensions, make a more inter- 
esting and more furnishable arrangement than a succession of 
square rooms, which tend to repeat each other in character and 
use. Generous window groups on long or important walls and 
arrangements of single windows or pairs on short or unimportant 
walls furnish a variety of outlook and lighting that is bound to 
give life and animation to the whole interior. 

In general the living-rooms in temperate climates should 
occupy southerly exposures — south, southeast, and south- 
west — unless such an arrangement is contradicted by the di- 
rection of the view, prevailing winds, or other conditions of 
the site. An east dining-room is especially to be desired, since 
the morning sun on the breakfast table starts the day off 
cheerily. Living-rooms southerly and working parts northerly 
make a good complementary arrangement for using to advan- 
tage the four exposures of a free-standing house. 

Further discussion of the working arrangements, such as 
kitchen, pantry, laundry, and the like, may be found on pages 
99 to 119. 

The sleeping-rooms must above all be private in location. 
That means that each room must be entered directly from a 
hall, not from another room. In a two-story house the privacy 
of the sleeping-rooms is automatically assured by placing 
them on the second floor. In a one-story arrangement a small 
bedroom-hall must be deliberately provided in addition to 
the entrance-hall. 

The relative advantages of a one-floor or two-floor arrange- 
ment for a private dwelling depend on a number of factors. 
In general, the two-story house and the real bungalow, which 
has all the rooms arranged on a single floor, are climatic ex-, 
pressions of housing for widely different localities. Each is 
so normal for its own conditions that it becomes the prevalent 
type of that place. The informal spread-out plan of the bunga- 
low is normal for warm climates, where yard and grounds 
form part of the daily life for a large part of the year and where 
the buildings may be lightly constructed without cellars and 



.1 .U.1.\7M/. OF HOME MM<I\(; 



without heating: syslciiis. I'ut when a dwrlliiij:; umsl l)c ar- 
i;uip;('tl for yrar-idiiiid comfort in a locality of cxtreine heat 
and cold, llic sii|)|)os('(| ccoiioniy of a one-floor arranj;<'iiieiil, 
unless kept very small and compact, loses all point and de- 



pmiH ; KOOM 



JOM 1—1 KlTC«f)l|[:--| ^ f[ 





FiRST ;.IIOK. flA« 



:£co)tp noon, fux 



Fig. 1. — Floor plans of a small house. The first floor plan shows a desirable 
spaciousness of living area and adaptability of working parts. The second 
floor plan shows an arrangement of four Ijcdrooms, closets, and bath de- 
veloped from a central hall. 

feats its own end. Large cellar and roof areas, the need for 
weather-tight construction and for an efTective heating plant 
soon eat up the supposed economy of cost. 

There is, however, something to be said for the simpler 
housekeeping of the one-floor arrangement. The ease with 
which a servantless household may ))(> comfortably maintained 
when all the living ai'rangemenfs are on a single floor, is re- 
sponsible for the populaiity of various forms of apartments, 
flats, two-family dwellings, and even cottages witli bedrooms 
on the flrst floor. Mo.st of these are, however, rented ilwelling- 
places anfl must not be confused with the type of house tiiat 
it is desirable to build and own as a permanent home. 



THE MODERN HOUSE 



The three arrangements shown in the accompanying illus- 
trations are typical examples of houses planned for modern 
conditions. 

In Fig. 1 are shown both floor plans of a small house 26 by 



1 


1 1 


- 


a 


1 


rot CM 

-Tt=H »■ *i 








J 


CILit 




^ 


5^*5, KITCHEH 


T 


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r 


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Fig. 2. — The first floor plan of a suburban house designed for the accomodation 
of a family with little children. 

30 feet. Here the spaciousness of the living area and the adapt- 
ability of the working parts may be instantly noted. The 
contrast in the size and shape of living- and dining-rooms, 
together with the long vista through both rooms and porch to 
the yard beyond, form a pleasing development of the space. 
The stairway is screened from the front door and is arranged 
in a separate stair-hall which serves also as passage to the coat- 
room and the kitchen. Such an arrangement greatly assists 
smooth and noiseless housekeeping. The second-floor plan 
shows an arrangement of four rooms, closets, and bath de- 
veloped from a central hall. 

In Fig. 2 is shown the first-floor plan of a suburban house 
designed for the accommodation of a family with little children. 



6 



.1 1/ l\r.l/. OF HOME M.\KI\(: 



The panel of space across (lie fiorit, ciniipiisiii^ liviii^r-roorn, 
hall, and diniii^i-rooiM, is suppleiiieiited liy a similar anaiiKC- 
ineiit of rooms in llie rear, in the form of nursery and kitchen. 
The front of the house can thus he kept in order wliile 



MP K.0OM 




L^ 



% I II II e 



Bi 




4- HAIL 



KITCHEN 



^4rW|— I' 



I I I 1. 1 



jiwiNG m* 




Fig. .3. — A typical arrariKement of all rooms on one floor. The livinK-rooms and 
kitchen are grouped snugly together, and the bedrooms are grouped and 
arranged to open from a retired hall. 

the rear part is in use. The nursery is so located that it 
can be watched by the worker in the kitchen, and the stairs 
are very accessible. With such an arrangement properly 
equip])efl, a mother could do her own work without exhaustion 
or loss of time. The children's luncii could be served in the 
nursery and the mother's couch and sewinjj; materials would 
always be ready. The nursery could later be transformed 
into a study-room or lilirary, or in case of illness into a down- 
stairs bedroom, since toilet facilities are at hand. Tlie house 
also adjusts itself to hired help. 

A typical arrangement of all looms on one Hoor is shown 



THE MODERN HOUSE 7 

in Fig. 3. The living-rooms and kitchen are grouped snugly 
together, and the bedrooms are grouped and arranged to open 
from a retired hall. Such a plan is suitable for a one-floor 
cottage arrangement in temperate climates. Another one- 
floor arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. 



BED RQQM 







lIcOAL KIN E 




Fig. 4. — A small farmhouse arranged on a single floor, with a cellar beneath for 
the furnace and for vegetable storage. 

THE FARMHOUSE * 

No building can be discussed intelligently apart from its 
surroundings. The best placing of the farmhouse depends 
on the location of the barns and other outbuildings. The rela- 
tion of these buildings to one another and to such considerations 
as sunlight, view, roadways, and garden should be carefully 
studied. Obviously, a general farm scheme that unites into 
one workable system lands, barns, and dwelling is the wisest 
beginning for the development of any property. Each im- 
provement will then take its place in the final scheme, and 

* The remainder of this chapter is taken from Cornell Reading-Course 
for the Farm Home, Bull. 39. 



8 .1 .\/,i.vr.i/. iiF iinMi: .\!.\K/.\(; 

pciinaiit'iit ('coiioiiiy will loull. <)uiici> ol citlicr old or new 
fannslcjuls will profit liy adliciiiij; to a simple and dinrt wcjik- 
iii^ plan for the farm ^froimd.s. The farmlK)iis(' is merely one 
unit of the whole farmstead. 

The practical value of a working; plan <-an liaidly be over- 
estimated. The haj)hazard farm f^roups commonly seen hear 
eloquent testimony to the futility of developiiif; property with- 
out jilan. Failure to plan involves waste of mone}' and labor; 
it means a continuous process of tearing down, reconstructing, 
and makeshift. Under all circumstances, hit-and-miss methods 
of work have i)rove(l unfailingly wasteful. Organized farming 
and organized housekeeping are the present tendency, and to 
this end an organized arrangement is necessary. A well-planned 
farmstead is more economical, more orderly, more beautiful, 
and more salable than one wliich, like Topsy, "just growed." 

FARMHOUSE PLANNING 

A farmhouse is more difficult to plan than either a city or a 
suburban dwelling, because it must provide for so many needs. 
The city or the suburban house is merely a home; it is supple- 
mented by an outside place of Ijusiness and by outside markets. 
The farmhouse, on the other hand, must be not only a home, 
but also the business center and to a limited extent the store 
and the market. This means that, planned as compactly as 
may be, a farmhouse is necessarily larger in floor area than a 
suburban house for the same family need be. Much thought 
and planning are, therefore, required in order to arrange this 
laiger aica in such a manner that wasteful methods of work 
will be avoided. 

Traditional types. 

It may truly be said that the problem of the American farm- 
house is still unsolved. For the building of new aj)proi)riate 
farm dwellings, there is almost no precedent to guide one. 
Most of the rural houses now standing are failures as farm- 
houses l)ecause they were not planned for farm conditions. 
In fact, many of them were not planned at all. They were 



THE MODERN HOUSE 9 

merely built, and built in about the following fashion: an 
outer shell was constructed and roofed over, the inside was 
divided into rooms, and somewhere a kitchen was attached. 
If the house became too small, more rooms were added to fit 
the growing; needs of the family. With each addition to the 
house, the kitchen retreated to the rear of the structure, where, 
by its very distance from the living-rooms, it confined the 
housewife to her post of duty. As the family decreased in 
numbers and helpers became few, the front part of the house 
was closed and home life was centered within the radius of 
the kitchen and its activities. 

Such of these old structures as are soundly built are worth 
replanning and equipping with running water, electric light, 
sound floors, and a good heating system. Alteration should 
be undertaken only after the complete project has been worked 
out on paper. 

In Fig. 5 is illustrated a rambling plan of the traditional 
farmhouse of the upright-and-wing type previously described. 
The original and the remodeled an-angement are shown in A 
and B, respectively. The main faults of the old plan. A, are 
two: first, the plan is deficient in correctly located hall space; 
second, the distance from the kitchen to the front of the house 
is too great. Since a person must pass through one room in 
order to reach another, the whole floor virtually becomes a 
passageway. This condition destroys privacy, interrupts work, 
and entails much extra cleaning. The correct amount of hall 
area placed in the heart of the plan would give separate entrance 
to each room and would save the whole house. Hall space 
should be regarded as the developer of the plan. If the plan 
is compactly arranged and the hall centrally placed, great 
service may be obtained from even a small allowance of hall 
space. The presence of five, six, or seven doors in a room in- 
dicates poor hall-planning, and therefore poor house-planning. 
It is well to remember that the number of doors in a room 
diminishes in proportion to the excellence of the plan. 

In plan B there is introduced enough central hall area to 
give direct access to each of the rooms. The kitchen is placed 




TME REMODELED PLAN 




T/iE OLD PLAN 



Fig. 5. — A icinoilclid faiinliolisc, to illu.stratc .stc|)-s:i\iii 



THE MODERN HOUSE 11 

centrally at the rear of this hallway. This brings the kitchen 
nearer the living rooms and shortens all working distances. 
If the distances from the center of the kitchen to the center 
of each room in plans A and B are computed, it is found that 
the remodeled plan saves an average distance of fifteen feet 
a round trip over the old plan. 

In the remodeled plan, such modern improvements as heat, 
light, and running water have been added; closets also have 
been provided. The whole plan is now arranged so as to en- 
courage wholesome Hving. 

Under the old plan the house contained two cellars, one 
under the square upright and one under the kitchen, with an 
unexcavated area under the dining-room. A long journey 
was thereby involved in going from one excavated part to the 
other. The new plan simplified this difficulty by excavating 
under the dining-room wing. 

A study of new types. 

Attention must now be fociised on more economical arrange- 
ments. The plan of any building is based primarily on its 
needs. Broadly speaking, family life makes three demands on 
a house plan: that it shall provide living area, working area, 
and sleeping area. The living area includes such parts as 
sitting-room, dining-room, library, office, and porch; the work- 
ing area includes kitchen, pantry, laundry, hall, and stairs; 
the sleeping area includes bedrooms and bath. It is the func- 
tion of a good plan to organize these three elements into a 
compact arrangement, allowing each requirement an area to 
itself. Spaciousness must be expressed in the living area, com- 
pactness in the working area, and privacy in the sleeping area. 

The farm cottage shown in Figs. 6 and 7 aptly illustrates 
these principles. Here is a compact plan with its three areas 
clearly defined. In the living area a feeling of spaciousness 
is obtained by the use of wide doorways and groups of windows 
through which vistas are seen indoors and out. No interior, 
however small in actual dimensions, need appear cramped 
if long vistas are planned for. Good interior design is also 



12 



.1 MAM AL f)F noMi: MAKISa 



cvidciit ill I'"iji;. »l. Ii is iiidicalcd \)\ llic Ital.-inccd aiialiticincnt 
of the stiuctmal pail> (tl each room. ( )ii the rear wall of the 
liviii^-rooiii is seen a <('iitial lircplacc flanked liy hioad door- 
ways of ('(Hial width, while the front wall opposite expands 
into a generous hay window cenlially placed, with huilt-in 




Fig. 6. — First floor plan, showing living area and working area. 

bookshelves to right and left. These features so unite as to 
make of the living-room a composition at once so dignified, 
so orderly, and so effect ivc that little furniture is needed to 
complete it. In the dining-room, l)alanced design is expressed 
by the long flower-box, the bay window, and by the central door 
on the opposite wall, flanked by diagonal corner features of 



THE MODERN HOUSE 



13 



equal width. In general, diagonal corners should be avoided 
except where they are a practical necessity or where they are 
deliberately used for reasons of design, as in Fig. 8. 

Of the working area (Fig. 6), the kitchen, pantiy, and stairs 



BARNS are: in • 
THIS DIRECTION- 




SECOND 
FLOOR- 



Fu;. 7.— ^Second floor plan, showing sleeping area. 

are the parts most constantly used by the woman of the house. 
Hence they are compactly grouped and are placed next to the 
living space. Woodroom and washroom are of intermittent 
use to the housewife but of constant use to the farmer. Conse- 
quently they are placed away from the living rooms in the 
direction of driveway and barns. 



14 



1 \/.l \ / W. OF HOME M.\l<l\(! 




Fic. 8. — A farmhouse plan, showing diagonal corners used deliberately for 
I)urpf)se of design. 



The sleeping area provides one Ijathrooni and three bed- 
rooms, each of the latter with its closet. Their position on 
the second floor rendcMs them quiet and i:)rivate. 

Briefly stated, economy of plan is expresseil in the groupeil 



THE MODERN HOUSE 



15 




Fig. 9. — Plan showing simplicity of living area and com- 
pleteness of working area. 

chimney arrangement, in the condensed hall and stair arrange- 
ment, and in the small kitchen. The kitchen arrangement is 
weak, however, in some respects. It has only one outside wall 
and is therefore lacking in cross-ventilation. Moreover, the 



1() .1 M.wiM. or no mi: .u ia/.w/ 

posilidii of ihc iloor hclwrcii (liiiiii^i-ioiiiii and kitclicii, Ix-iii^ 
in lim- with the kitclicii iiiii^c, would surely prove a uuisatice 
from (Mjiisidcrations (»f sifilit, sound, and smell. It is unfor- 
tunate, loo, that the p.illi of travel from the rear to the front 
of the house leads throujih the kitchen. 

In I-'ifj;. '.I is icpresented another well-planned farmhou.so. 
It is characteri/ed cliielly liy the simplicity of the living area 
and hy the completeness of the working; area. Each area 
occujjies about one-half of the floor plan. 

The liviiifj; area is unicjue and spacious. Instead of two 
separate rooms, each of which would be small, liviuK-room 
and dining-room are combined into one larf^e apartment. A 
group of three glass doors connects this generous living-room 
with an imusual porch arrangement, called on the j)lan an 
"arborcd terrace." This terrace, which is cement-paved under 
foot and vine-covered overhead, is in rcalitj' an open-air con- 
tinuation of the living-room, which adds materially to the 
comfort of the family in summer. Here meals may be scM'ved 
w'hilc sunlight and garden are cnjoj'ed. The position of window 
groups on both ends of the large room creates a long, unbroken 
vista, so that all the living space is appreciated all the time. 

Centrally placed on the long outer wall of the living-room 
is a fireplace alcove, or inglcnook. This feature increases the 
actual width of the room and provides two outdoor vistas in 
new directions. Inglenooks, however, should be used with 
great reserve imless they are generous in width and develop 
naturalh' on the plan. Many times the excellence of an entire 
plan is sacrificed to the use of a feature of this nature. 

The completeness of the working area is best appreciated 
by observing that each kind of work has its allotted jilace. 
The kitchen is intended for cooking; the pantry, for food 
storage; the pass pantry, for dishes; the woodroom, for fuel; 
the hall and stairs, for passage; the two recessed porches gather 
entrance to the house in a common passage that senses all 
looms. 

The kitchen arrangement shown in Fig. 9 excels that in 
Fig. G in at least three particulars. The introduction of a pass 




3 



U- 



18 .1 MAXIM, or HOME MAKlXa 

|):iiiliv serves to sccliiilc llic Isitrhcii iKdii tlic livinji-roctiii ; 
jfood cross-voiitilalioii tiikcs place Ix-tweeii tlie windows (iver 
tal)le and sink: and tlie path of travel from tlie rear- pordi 1«) 
tlie front of the house does not cross the kitchen. 

In this house the laundry is located in the hasenieiit, which 
stands out of ^lound on the kitchen corner. An outside door 
cnt(M's the ('(>llar on fjrade level. 

Tlie hedi-oom jjlan is compact, private, hjilit, and airy. 

Other i)lans ma}' he analyzed in a similar maiuier, tlie strength 
and the weakness of various arranf»;einent.s noted, and a sense 
of pjood planninfi; acciuired. The lar{j;er farmhou.se shown in 
Fi^. 10 has been inserted for personal study on the i)art of 
the readers. It n^presents a well-or{j;anized airan<:ement with 
a new feature introduced in the rear — a hired man's room 
with separate stairs leading to it. The dignified, .simple, and 
well-designed exteiior shown in Plate I, upj)er figure, will stim- 
ulate the imagination and serve to make the plan more realistic. 

It must not be supposed that the plans shown in Figs. G, 8, 
and 9 are perfect in every respect. No Ijusiness office is in- 
cluded and they contain fewer bedrooms than farmhouses of 
the past have provided. It must be remembered that each 
of these houses was designed for a particular family and for a 
particular farm site, as all successful houses should be. Con- 
sequently they are not intended as models to be copied, but 
as illustrations of the principles of house-planning. If the 
principles of planning are understood they may be applied, 
whether to new w'ork or to alterations. 

In general, an intricate or confused plan is alwaj'S a poor 
one; the more carefully an arrangement is studied, the simpler 
it should become. Briefiy stated, the final test of a good plan 
is its extreme simplicity. Starting at the main entrance, one 
should be able to proceed mentally through the plan with ease 
and comprehension. For the most part the w^alls should be 
in continuous, straight lines and should show an absence of 
jogs, angles, and diagonal corners. Windows may ho grouped 
or single, but should be disjwsed in an orderly manner with 
relation both to interior and to exterior appearance. 



THE MODERN HOUSE 19 

The plans shown are a reasonable protest against the old 
wasteful types of farm dwellings. Study of these plans will 
serve to show in what respects the modern rural house should 
differ from former arrangements. A living-room now com- 
bines the unused parlor and the overused sitting-room for 
general family life; an office where the farmer's business is 
transacted is provided in a place convenient to roadway and 
bai-n, but outside the path of housework travel; the kitchen 
arrangement is compact and well organized; the downstairs 
bedrooms open, not from other rooms, but from a private hall, 
thus insuring quiet and privacy (Figs. 5 and 8); a bathroom is 
provided on either the first or the second floor, according to 
w^ater pressure; if possible all the bedrooms are provided with 
windows on two sides; the large hall with open stairs has given 
way to a more condensed arrangement; a generous porch or 
uncovered terrace is placed where it either commands the 
best view or is most useful during the day; the family hearth 
has literally returned in the living-room fireplace; and the 
whole plan is so arranged that the rooms lived in most are the 
sunniest. 

A dwelling combining the above features is illustrated in 
Fig. 11. Wisely studied and frankly arranged, without a foot 
of waste room, this structure represents a type of farmhouse 
that is economical to build, to heat, and to work. The staii's 
for the whole house are contained in one vertical shaft; the 
hall is reduced to a small area; an office is placed near the 
roadway and away from the housewife's work, which is accom- 
modated in a dining-room and kitchen combination; a man's 
room is provided at the extreme end of the plan, away from 
the family; a washroom is on the line of travel between the 
back porch and the dining-room; and a spacious living-room, 
with fireplace and window groups, is located on a desirable 
corner. On the second floor, the stairs land centrally in a 
square hall, which gives direct entrance to each of the four 
bedrooms and to the bathroom; the bedrooms are provided 
with good closets; light and ventilation are everywhere abun- 
dant. 



20 



.1 .\/.i,v/ .1/. or iioMi: M.\i<L\(; 




ih 



VEJ?A/<DA 

I* -14 



Fl 55T FLOOR 
PLAAI. 




5FCO/ND FLOOR 
PLAAJ 

Fig. 11. — .\ hou.so planned for farm life and farm oojulitions. 

Modern improvements. 

The class of conveniences known as niodeiii improvements — 
meaning thereby plumbing, heating, and lighting systems, the 
installation of mechanical power to be u.sed for pumps, wash- 
ing machines, mangles, vacuum cleaners, and the like — may 
properly be discussed only by experts who have special knowl- 
edge of them. The practical aspect of most of these improve- 



THE MODERN HOUSE 21 

merits has been widely discussed in books and pamphlets, so 
that any householder may become informed before installing 
such improvements in the home. 

EXTERIOR DESIGN (PLATES I AND II) 

In order to be a success, a country house must be in har- 
mony with its environment. It should appear to have grown 
on its site, and to be a normal expression of human life in nat- 
ural surroundings. The house should be in tune with the color 
and the contour of the landscape. Farm lands which are for 
the most part flat or rolling, produce contours which are 
strongly horizontal. Architecture that is appropriate to such 
landscape should in general be low, broad, and snug. Tall 
narrow structures are necessary in cities where land is costly 
and are appropriate in rugged, cliffy countries where nature 
is replete with vertical surfaces; but they are inappropriate 
when standing free on a flat site. 

Color scheme. 

The setting of a rural house presupposes such natural scenery 
as is composed of trees, shrubs, lawns, gardens, hills, rocks, and 
streams. The color effect of the house must be in harmony 
with this setting. Such colors as white, cream, grays, soft 
greens, and browns of various shades will always harmonize 
with nature. Red is bold unless partially screened by planting. 
The use of brick is about the only reason for introducing a red 
color scheme. Brick walls are broken in mass by jointing and 
relieved by contrast at the openings, whereas a wooden house 
painted red is distressing. When field stone, concrete, cement, 
or brick is used, the color scheme is spontaneous, being pro- 
duced by the color of the materials selected; when wood is 
employed, however, a surface color effect is applied by means 
of stain or paint. This color scheme should be neither too 
dull nor too bright. Cold grays and drabs are about as cheer- 
less as red is aggressive. In general, when choosing paint 
from samples, it is wise to select a color that is somewhat 
softer than the effect desired. A small piece of gay color which 



22 .1 MAM AL OF noMK-MAKISa 

looks interest iiiii in the li.inil, .Mppears ^l.-iiinu ;in<l Itold when 
coverinp; an entire liou>e. I,ike\vi>e, a coM, (|ea<l eolor appears 
cheerless when u>ei| in ina^s. 

'I'he chief lactfir to lie a\i)ii|e(| in paintinji houses is an ef- 
fecl of patchiness. I-'or example, in the ease of a poi'ch pcrst 
or column, the cap and the base should not he |)ainted ono 
color and the shaft another. The whole porch should he one 
idea. Cornices, brackets, and moldiii;;s should not he i)ickeij 
out by color, as li{z;ii1 and shade interpret them sufliciently. 
r.seless bi'ic-a-brac an<l ornament that cannot be icmovecl 
.should be subdued as much as possible in liie color sclienic. 

Looked at as ;i j^icture, the windows and doors of a house 
should apjM'ar as decorative accents, contrasting with the 
back,a;round of wall, ^^'indows cspocially an; the eyes that 
give expression to the architectural face of the dwelling. With 
walls of a light color the window^s naturally form a dark con- 
trast; but if the walls are dark or dull in effect, the window's 
may be enlivencnl by painting the sash a lighter or brighter 
color and the blinds a clear shade of green, vellow-l)rown, or 
other harmonious color. Doorways and entrances should 
have dignified recognition in the color scheme. 

General proportion. 

The effectiveness of a house in the landscajK' depends not 
at all (jn ornament, but on its structural shape and the color 
produced through the use of building materials. Refined 
proportions, simple roof lines, and interesting but not violent 
contrasts between roof, walls, and oixMiings, together with 
the character and arrangement of windows and doors, are 
the elements that combine to make of a country' house an ex- 
ample of true rural architecture. 

It has been previously stated that the mass-proportion of a 
house in the open country shoultl be low and broad rather 
than tall and narrow. This feeling of proportion depentls not 
so much on the actual height of the house from ground to 
gable, as on the position of the eaves or the cornice line. When 
the eaves line is low, the effect of the house is low; hence the 



THE MODERN HOUSE 23 

value of long roof lines in obtaining good proportions. If the 
roof rafters are brought down to the level of the second floor, 
a sound, practical, and attractive structure usually results. 
It is desirable to include the porch under such a roof whenever 
possible, since this simplifies the roofing system of the house 
and unites house and porch into one contained design. While 
long roof lines and recessed porches are not always desirable, 
they have their charm and place. 

Low eaves and a long roof line usually fit a farmhouse plan 
very conveniently because such a treatment brings a smaller 
second-floor plan than first-floor plan. This is exactly the 
farmhouse requirement. The rooms under the roof may be 
lighted and ventilated by means of generous dormers or gables. 

It is commonly supposed that bedrooms located under a 
sloping roof must necessarily be low and hot. This is not 
true. The fact that some bedrooms so located have been stuffy 
does not argue that all bedrooms need to be so; it implies 
rather that there has been no cross-ventilation or that the 
windows were placed so low as to leave a pocket of hot air 
confined near the ceiling. An outlet for the hot air should be 
furnished by windows placed high in the room. If the roof 
pitch and dormer windows are studied to fit the height of the 
second-floor rooms, a full second story with high or full-length 
windows may be commodiously arranged under a long roof, 
and the low parts may be used for closets. 

Structural elements. 

The windows of a dwelling, whether grouped or single, 
should be similar in style and should show some kind of orderly 
arrangement. In general, unity of design is preserved if the 
tops of all windows on a floor are kept on the same level. Vari- 
ations in window heights will thus occur between the floor 
level and the sill. Oval windows, diamond-shaped windows, 
and other fancy forms should be avoided. A miscellaneous 
collection of windows jotted at different points over a building 
robs it of dignity and composure. Window blinds and small 
panes have a certain decorative value from the outside. 



24 .1 M.WIM. or IIOMI: M \Ki\<; 

N(» foiiiii i>' lioiix' i> (•(iiii|ilctc witlioiit ;i ircrirroiis [»<»icli or 
other Icahirc tliat will t'onii :i center for outdoor family life. 
A viiie-co\cre(| arhor, a |)a\C(l spot, or merely a .shaded stretch 
of lawn near tlie house may lie made fully as livable as the 
usual porch. The usual type of American porch, a covered 
|)iatforni attached to the house, built hif^h and dry, inclosed 
l)y a railing, and reached by steps, has artificially confined 
outdooi- life to the house apart, from yard anrl Karden. If 
comfort and beauty arc both to be served, neither porcii nor 
garden should be sacrificed; they should rather be arranged 
adjacently so that the lawn adjoins the porch and the vistas 
down the garden paths are continuous with the main vistas 
from the porch, or are related to views from the imiwrtant 
windows of the house. In other words, house and ground.s 
should i)e planned as one continuous design, u.sing as a con- 
necting link the porch. 

The chief difficulty with a united porch and garden scheme 
arises from the usual difference in height between the porch 
fioor and the yard level. These two levels may be brought near 
together either by setting the hou.se low on the ground and Ijuild- 
ing areas around the cellar w'indows (Plate I), or by raising a 
flat, graded terrace to within a step or two of the porch floor. 
Both the.se schemes are ficquently and successfully practiced, 
and in no way prevent light and air from entering the cellar. 

In order to be commodious, a porch should be room-shaped, 
rather than long and narrow. A porch 10 to 12 feet wide and 
14 to 20 feet long will give greater comfort than one 6 to 8 
feet wide and extending aroimd two sides of the house. Further- 
more, a rectangular porch will not darken so nuich of the in- 
terior as will one extending along the full length of the house. 
If the porch occupies a sunny position, it may be shaded and 
eml)Owered by screening with latticework, over which vines 
may be allowed to grow. A cement or biick fioor is desirable 
for porch use. 

If an upstairs sleeping-porch is planned, the I'ailing should be 
built solidly from the floor for 2 or 8 feet, and the oj^en part 
above should be provided with window .sash and awnings in 




Plate II. — AppK.^-ji.iu types of architecture for a suburban or 
country home. 



THE MODERN HOUSE 



25 



order that storms and early morning light may be excluded. 
This arrangement can be made comfortable for year-round use. 
Outside entrance doors should be sheltered by a hood on 
brackets, by a portico, or by a porch (Fig. 12). It is usually de- 
sirable to separate the living-porch from the main entrance. 




Fig. 12. — A modest farm cottage of good design. 

Here, if anywhere, a little genuine design should be afforded. 
A portal is an intimate feature and should express dignity, hos- 
pitality, and beauty to all who enter. A natural-finish oak 
door with plate glass panel can hardly be considered appro- 
priate for a decorative doorway, because it is out of keeping, 
both in material and color, with the remainder of the exterior. 



COST OF BUILDING 



The actual cost of building a given house is determined 
largely by local conditions. The cost of labor, the cost of ma- 



20 .1 MAMM. or noMI: MAKIMi 

IcriHls used, the (li>t;ilii'(' of the new huildiiiff iVoiu tlic \)ii>v. 
of siijiplics, and the mihoihiI of hauling involved, arc items 
lliat vary with every enterprise, 'i'lms no fixed price may Ix; 
flUf)led as to the cost of a ^iven l)uil(hii^i, the year round and 
ill all locahties. The readiny; puhhc should, therefore, place 
jio faith in the buildinfj; fif^ures (juoted in popular magazines. 
Tlicy are misleading; in the extreme; for they usually represent 
eitluM* a set of conditions which have not been fully tcjld or 
which are so unusual that they may not he (hiplicated. In 
general it may safely be said tiuit a modest house of usual 
construction may be built for considerably less money Ijy rural 
than by city labor. 

One way of estimating the j)rol)able cost of a new house is 
to compare it with another dwelling recently built in the local- 
ity. If the size and cost of the house already built are known, 
one may compute the average cost a cubic foot by dividing 
the total cost by the numl^er of cubic feet that the house con- 
tains. If the house that is planned is to be of better grade 
than the one figured on, it will cost more a culjic foot; if it is 
simpler, it will cost less. A rough estimate maj'- thus be reache<l 
before the work is undertaken or is figured out b}^ the con- 
tractor. 

With present standards of building it is likely that in no 
locality can a house with modern improvements be erected for 
less than sixteen cents a cubic foot, and that a modest house 
need not exceed twenty-four cents a cubic foot unless fireproof 
construction is used. An average cost of about eighteen cents 
a cul)ic foot is probably fair for most country districts. 

]\Iuch has been said and written about the present high cost 
of building. It is true that a house of a given size to-day often 
costs twice as much as one of the same size would have cost 
twentj'-five years ago; but this advance is due not alone to 
the increased cost of lal)or and material, but also to similar 
types of dwellings not being compared. A house equipped with 
heat, running water, hardwood floors, many closets, antl fre- 
quently with electric light and built-in furniture is com- 
pared with a mere weather-proof structure built with single 



THE MODERN HOUSE 27 

floors, no closets, and few or no modern improvements. Many 
more trades and much more equipment than formerly now 
go into the building of a comfortable house. It is the amount 
and the kind of equipment that increases the cost; a house 
30 by 40 feet may be made to cost $3,000 or S10,000, according 
to the beauty and finish of interior woodwork, floors, and 
walls, the amount of plumbing, the number and kind of fixtures 
selected, or the kind of heating plant installed. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR MAKING ALTERATIONS 

Any person who expects to make alterations in a house 
should begin to ponder improvements a long time in advance. 
The first step should be an accurately measured record of the 
present floor plans, drawn at a scale of one-quarter inch to the 
foot. The exact size and position of walls, openings, closets, 
chimneys, or other existing features should be located on these 
drawings, which may then be studied by comparing them 
with other good plans found in books and magazines. Tissue 
paper or tracing paper may then be placed over the drawings 
and alteration sketches freely made. A dozen arrangements 
may thus be tried on paper, hung on the wall, and considered 
at leisure. These plans should be supplemented by a building- 
book in which one may keep measurements, written data, and 
new ideas as they occur. In this book, clippings may be pasted 
and sketches may be freely made. These plans and this book 
correspond in a rude way to the architect's drawings and 
specifications, and will serve to crystallize the alterations into 
definite form. 

Generations of building experience have shown that suc- 
cessful results must be based on definite instructions. No 
man's memory should be trusted for measurements or other 
information, and verbal directions should not be given to 
workmen. Building operations are exceedingly definite; walls 
and openings when in place cannot be moved one inch in order 
to suit a piece of furniture or to make way for an altered notion. 
All these experimental ideas should be worked out on paper. 

As the owner studies over alteration problems, the best 



28 A MAMM. or HOME-MAKISC 

anaii^ciiiciil will :il Iciintli l.-ikc sli;i|)c in liis own mind. An 
inlclli^iltlc li(tni(-ni;i(lc diawin^ mikI an explicit written list of 
his reciuirenieiils may then he put in shape, so that the car- 
penter or contractor can make a fairly acr-urate estimate; of 
the cost l)efore work is tx'fiun. In ortlei- to obtain the l)est 
rosuhs, the owner should icad up, in relial^le hooks, such sub- 
jects as waterworks and heatiiiK systems and should freely 
invest if!;ate catalofiues of eciuipment. 

When the contemplated alterations are extensive and there- 
fore costly, or when a new liouse must be built, the work should 
by all means be turned over to a good architect. Forceful 
arransomont and good design require trained experience; an 
attemjit to get along without such pi-ofessional help is false 
econoni}'. It is the architect's daily business to put building 
requirements into buildable shape. Practical construction 
is the basis of his design. Moreover, he is acquainted with 
all the short cuts whereby efficient results may be obtained 
quickly and permanently. 

References 

King, F. H. Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables. 

Lynde, Car let on. Home Waterworks. 

Putnam, X. W. The Gasoline Engine on the Farm. 

Roberts, Isaac Phillips. The Farmstead. 

Schneider, X. II. Electric Light for the Farm. 

Stickley, Gustav. Craftsman Homes. 

White, Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and How to Build Them. 



CHAPTER II 
HOME FURNISHING 

By Annette J. Warner 

The home represents the most intimate environment of 
the individual. No matter how unconscious of their surround- 
ings persons may seem, their tastes and ideas are affected by 
the things with which they live continually. Such being the 
case, the woman who makes it her task to provide for her 
family significant surroundings, thereby adds to the ordinary 
experiences of life a real factor of education and enjoyment. 

Any rules or discussion on furnishing the home must neces- 
sarily be very general, and cannot be conclusive in deciding 
individual problems. The most that can be done is to review 
such features and considerations as enter into all questions 
of home furnishing, hoping thereby to point the way to the 
solution of the individual problem. 

Even in the hands of an experienced person, matters of home 
furnishing and of decoration require a slow and thoughtful 
study. There are no shortcuts. No matter how long it takes 
to make a decision in furnishing, the time spent in so doing 
is insignificant when compared to the duration of the result. 
On account of this permanence of furnishings, also, an in- 
terior cannot afford to record passing fads, shams and imi- 
tations, but should rather express lasting, sincere, and dignified 
ideas. 

The furnishings of the house should be consistent in character 
with the structural interior. Beamed ceilings, rough plaster 
walls, and sturdy woodwork are appropriate in a home of the 
Craftsman style. Such an interior would be a suitable back- 
ground for mission furniture; it would be incongruous in a house 
of Colonial style, or as a setting for mahogany furniture. 

29 



30 .1 U 1 \ / 1/. or HOME MM<I\(; 

The house should jippe.-ir ;!> I hou^ih ii were phiiined ihrouRh- 
out li\' one person for one loeiihtN', one f;miily, one purse. If 
the house is in a southeiii lalitiide, coiufort is exi)ressed by 
lurfjo spaces, lonp; vistas, shadows, cool colors, linht drapery, 
few and li^hl-wei^;!!! rufis and lij^ht furniture. If the liousc 
is in a northern climate or is used chieliy in winter, couifort i.s 
expressed 1)V a lar«!;e firei)lace, warm colorings, lar^e ru^s, 
heavi(M- and richer drapery, and some upholstereil furniture. 
Ill the ciiN' house, space ant! lij;ht are hixurics that must bo 
conseived hy every jiossihle means. In the country there are 
fewer limitations of this sort, hut there are varying; condition.s 
in the enxiioiinient of country houses that should influence their 
treatment. 

In p:eneral, simplicity of treatment in finish and furnishing 
preserves tlu^ di.unity of the house and is always in fz;oo(l taste. 
An interior should also be fitted to its use in ever}' part, should 
appear consistent, genuine, and hannonious throughout. The 
environment can thus be made to typify the qualities to which 
a family aspires. 

STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATION OF ROOMS 

Size 
The old ideal for a room was the largest, "squarest" room 
possible for ev(My use — for a family room, bedroom, or kitchen. 
Changed conditions of living and the increased cost of labor and 
building material have reduced the size of the modern house. 
According to the varied nature of their use, it is evident that 
rooms should vary in size and in shape. 

Living-room. 

The living-room for the family should be the largest room in 
the house, since it serves a greater variety of purposes and a 
larger number of persons than any other room. The restful 
effect of an appearance of ample space is one of its charms. 
Sacrifice of spaciousness in other parts of the house may well 
be made in order to provide a spacious living-room. The actual 
size for a living-room is a matter allowing great variation, but 



HOME FURNISHING 31 

rooms varying from 14 to 16 feet in width and from 18 to 24 
feet in length suggest good sizes. 

Dining-room. 

The dining-room is also a gathering place for all the members 
of the family. It, however, has but one center and serves only 
one function. It may, therefore, well be considerably smaller 
than the living-room. For the comfortable serving of the 
meals, at least three feet should be allowed between the edge of 
the table and the sideboard or any other furniture in the room. 

Kitchen. 

The kitchen should be small and compact in arrangement 
and should not contain a foot of unnecessary space. A good 
size for a kitchen in which the work is done by one person is 
estimated to be from 100 to 150 square feet of space (page 102). 

Bedrooms. 

The bedroom of the modern house may be relatively small 
because the convenience of built-in closets, of lighter types of 
furniture, and of bathrooms makes a large size unnecessary. 
In a bedroom, after sufficient space has been allowed for pur- 
poses of ventilation, sleeping, dressing, and storage of clothes, 
convenience is better served by compactness than by size. 

Halls. 

Halls are used to give direct access to all parts of the house. 
After this purpose has been accomplished, space may appro- 
priately be economized here in a home of moderate size. 

Shape and proportion 

Simple rectangular shapes for rooms are the natural outcome 
of building conditions. Any extension or projection should be a 
coherent stinictural feature and should be used only to satisfy 
a need in the function of the room. A chimney seat, a recess 
necessitated by a dormer window, an ingle nook when it works 
out naturally on plan, are often reasonable features. A bay- 
window built to add space or to improve the lighting conditions 
of a room, if well designed may furnish an interesting decorative 



32 



.1 M.w iM. or iioMi: \L\Ki\(; 




Fig. 13. — A typical low room in an old-fa-shionod cottago, showinR how even a 
good horizontal! arraiiKcmont of lines and furnishings decreases the ap- 
parent lu'ight of the room. 




Fk;. 11. — The same typo of low room as in Fig. 13, showing how a vertical ar- 
rangement of lines and furnishings tends to increase the apparent height 
of the room. 



HOME FURNISHING 33 

feature both inside and outside the house. No excrescences or 
protuberances should be built merely for the sake of original 
or ornate effect. 

An oblong is in general a more pleasing shape for a room than 
is a square. A pleasing relation between the three dimensions — 
length, breadth, and height — should if possible be maintained. 
A room that is very long is' not easily adapted to general uses 
and is lacking in an effect of intimacy. A room that is too high 
is wasteful of unused space, is hard to heat, and is unfriendly 
in appearance. In a room in which all the dimensions are equal 
or nearly equal, the shape is obvious at once; nothing is left 
to the imagination, and the result is stupid and uninteresting. 
However, a square may sometimes be the most convenient and 
economical shape for a room. For a small dining-room with a 
square or round dining table, a square may be both a conven- 
ient and a fitting shape. An oblong in which one dimension is 
perceptibly longer is much more pleasing than one in which 
there is a doubt as to comparative dimensions. An excellent 
proportion for an average room is one in which the width is 
more than half and less than two-thirds the length. 

In a house of moderate cost and size, it is not always possible 
to plan so that each room is of ideal proportion. Persons must 
often live in homes which they themselves have not built. In 
such cases there are many devices by which the apparent pro- 
portion may be improved. 

Devices for changing apparent proportion (Figs. 13-16). 

The eye naturally tends to follow any continuous line. By 
establishing lines in any particular direction, therefore, that 
direction is emphasized at the expense of the others. 

Rooms that are too high may be made to appear lower by 
introducing strong horizontal lines, for example: 

1. By bringing the ceiling color down on the side wall. This 
is successful only when the ceiling color is happily related in hue 
and value to the side wall, and when its width corresponds to 
the width of a moderate border 10 inches or 12 inches, in a 
room of ordinary dimensions, say 14 feet by 16 feet by 9 feet. 



34 



.1 M.WCAL or HOME MAKIXC 




Fig. 1.3. — A tall room of the late iiinetcoiith fcntury typo showiiiR a placing of 
picture molding and a selection and arrangement of furnishing.s that tend 
to decrease the apparent height of the room. Wall coverings of .-^uch dig- 
nified pattern and harmonious color as are shown in Plate V, may some- 
times be used above the molding with decorative effect. Note the relation 
of the shapes of the pictures to the spaces. 




Fig. 16. — A typical modern living-room in which a group of casements and a 
built-in scat dominate the furnishing effect. 



HOME FURNISHING 35 

2. By using a molding at the intersection of side wall and 
ceiling, and by making the picture-molding continuous with the 
top of doors or windows. 

3. By a wainscot or dado, the top of which is on a level with 
the window-sills. 

4. By using a valance in the window drapery, if this is con- 
sistent with the style of the room and the other furnishings, 
and by hanging all draperies so that the width of the opening 
is emphasized. 

5. By using furniture in which the horizontal lines dom- 
inate, such as long low bookcases, davenports, sideboards, or 
tables. 

6. By using pictures which are horizontal oblongs in shape, 
or by grouping several smaller pictures so that either the lower 
or upper edges of their frames will establish continuous horizon- 
tal lines. 

Rooms that are too low may be made to appear higher by 
emphasizing the vertical lines, for example : 

1. By placing the picture-molding at the ceiling, leaving the 
side wall undivided. 

2. By using vertically striped wall paper. Stripes should 
always be of nearly the same color or value in order to be un- 
obtrusive. 

3. By using as long draperies as are consistent with the use 
and structure of the room, and by hanging these in straight 
folds and so arranging them as to make the openings high and 
narrow in effect. 

4. By the use of tall and narrow bookshelves, cabinets, and 
other furniture. 

5. By the use of pictures that are vertical oblongs, or by 
grouping the pictures with each other or with pieces of furniture 
so that the vertical is emphasized. 

In a room that is square or is too short an oblong, emphasis 
may be given to one dimension, for example: 

1. By opening up a vista through a door or window, or by 
planning interesting features in the furnishings in order to 
emphasize the long axis of the room, A mirror may perform 



■?^==^ 



1 








■aess 




r ■ 












- 


i;, 1 










Dl 








_ 







k 


1 11 


1 


- + 


1 





Fio. 17. — A study of windows in relation to the adjoining wall space. First frroup: A single 
window in the middle of a short wall: a .small doui)le-hun); window of bald design; a 
generous doublo-hunK window with pleiusing wall space around it; an interesting and 
%vell-placod casement. Second group: Two separate wimlows in a generous wall space: 
a good arrangement both for (list ribut ion of livrht and for the placing of furniture; a 
poor arrangement both for lighting and for furnishing. Third and fourth groups: 
Pairs and groups of windows in a generous wall space: a fair arrangement for a pair 
of double-hung windows, providing good light and good wall space; an interesting 
group of casements, dominating the wall space and furnishing abundant light; a pleas- 
ing group of double-hung windows; a pleasing arrangement of French windows. The 
use of moldings in any case must be related to the proportion of the room and the 
Structural line of the openings. 



HOME FURNISHING 37 

a valuable office in adding to the apparent length of a room. 
The French have understood this and have increased the ap- 
parent size of dance-hall and dining-room by the skillful use 
of many mirrors. 

2. By placing the long dimension of a rug in the direction 
to be emphasized. If the room is sufficiently large and the 
other conditions warrant it, two narrow rugs so placed as to 
emphasize the length of the room may be used. 

3. By placing the long pieces of furniture in the direc- 
tion to be emphasized. Seats or shelves may sometimes be 
built in. 

In rooms that are too long, the apparent width should be 
increased and the apparent length diminished by every device 
possible, for example: 

1. By placing openings or important structural features 
centrally on the long sides, thus breaking the length of the 
room into two or more furnishing centers. 

2. By using more than one rug, placed with the long edges 
parallel to the short side of the room, in order to break up the 
space and establish lines across the room. 

3. By placing the long pieces of furniture or by grouping 
furniture so that the width rather than the length of the room 
is emphasized. 

Location of windows and doors (Figs. 17, 18). 

The location, style, and proportion of windows and doors 
are structural considerations that affect every mterior. The 
amount and shapes of the remaining wall spaces after windows 
and doors have been placed define the possibilities of the fur- 
nishing scheme. It is, therefore, important to arrange windows 
and doors in such a way as to leave usable wall spaces. These 
spaces should be so pleasing in shape and proportion that 
the bare room is in itself a design. Many doors in a room 
are an evidence of poor planning. While there is no rule 
about windows, an amount of window area equal to about 
one-fourth the floor area will in general be found a reasonable 
guide. 



:is 



,1 \/.i.vr.i/. or iioMi: M.\Ki\(! 











r 
i 


"t^T"^ 


= nTIr^ 




::: :i 




.... i . 


j:ii_ - 




1 r 


- ,'"h-i 






\\ \\ II 1 




.-^^V- 





D E 


— 


I 




^ 




t 1 


n 



Cl 



m 



H 



m 



i i 



' i 7 



Fig. 18. — A-B: Two types of liay windows. C: A woll-placed croup of hiph 
casements. D-I: A study of si-t windows showing how the appearance of 
the window is aflfccted by the division of the glass. 



HOME FURNISHING 39 

Structural surfaces. 

The structural surfaces of the room are walls, ceiling, and 
floor. 

Walls include plaster walls, windows, doors, and trim. 

Plaster walls. 

The usual finish for the walls of a dwelling is plaster. Plaster 
may be rough or smooth. It may be left in the natural color, 
painted, or papered. 

1. Rough plaster: The irregularities in rough, or sand-finished, 
plaster produce an effect of texture that makes such a wall 
an attractive background. The natural color of rough plaster 
varies according to the color of the sand used in mixing it. 
Sometimes it is a pure gray, sometimes it is tinged with soft 
tones of warm color. Powdered color may be mixed with the 
plaster when it is wet, if the mason is sufficiently experienced 
to handle it. Rough plaster should be applied by a skillful 
workman in order to produce a uniform effect. Rough plaster 
is rather harsh in texture and is not suitable in all rooms or 
with all woods. It is more akin to hard woods like oak, waxed 
or stained, than to mahogany or satinwood or painted woods. 
It is incongruous with delicate or very luxurious hangings. 
It is better in family rooms than in bedi'ooms or small rooms 
in which hands come often in contact with the wall. If rough 
plaster is spotted or discolored, it is not so easy to clean as 
smooth plaster. If the discoloration is only on the surface, 
it may be removed by pumice stone. 

If it is desired to change the color of rough plastered walls, 
oil paint is a very good medium; a coat of glue-size applied 
before the paint will facilitate the work and will economize 
the amount of paint. 

2. Smooth plaster: Walls finished in smooth plaster present 
an even flat surface, not so interesting as the rough plaster, 
but with many advantages. It is easier to apply and is easily 
cleaned. Smooth plaster should be painted or papered, since 
its glaring white surfa.ce is a trying element in almost any 
color scheme. 



40 -1 U.l\7 .1/. OF HOME \1M<I\(; 

W. Siiioolli pliistci- |);ii!itc(| lull color or w.itci- color) : I'miiii 
liMS an acKaiita^c o\cr paper in lliat aii\- Mil.tlcl\- of tint or 
tone may he obtained tluou^li skillful mixing. In general, in 
tlic use of house paint, white will lij:;liten any color and lilack 
will ilarkeii aii\' coloi-; hut in the case; of t he Ncllows, since hiack 
paint lends to develop fireen shades in them, dark l)r()wn paint 
slioukl 1)0 substituted foi- the black. OW color is more durable 
than water color. Although oil paint is more expensive in the 
be^inniiif!; than water color, it is more economical in the end 
for use in rooms that are constantly occujMed, or on f)arts of 
walls that are subject to tiie frequent contact of hands or fur- 
niture, such as schoolrooms, nurseries, kitchens, or corridors. 

Oil color sometimes lias a tlisasroeable shine. This may be 
avoided by adding turpentine or by flat finishing (pouncing 
with a broad fiat bristle brush). Oil colors may be obtained 
already mixed, but they frequently vary from sample. A 
l)etter plan is to buy the ingredients and have them mixed 
only a short time before using. Different surfaces require 
different proportions of paint, oil, turpentine, and the like. 
An even tone throughout the room is always safe, but a very 
attractive effect may be obtained by an uneven tone. For 
example, the walls might be painted a gray l)lue and stippled 
with a gra}^ green. Such treatment pi-oduces an effect of at- 
mosphere suggesting space. It should never be attempted 
except by an experienced painter. Oil color is easily cleaned 
by washing with soap and water. 

Water color, or calcimine, has the advantage of being in- 
expensive, and less skill is required in applying it. Water 
color may be applied over other surfaces, such as paper, l)eaver- 
board, or calcimine, but wall pajier should not be put on over 
calcimine as it is likely to strip olf. Water color walls cannot 
be washed but can l)e easily' freshened l)y the application of a 
second coat. Water color is the most common treatment for 
ceiUngs even though the side walls may be painted or papered. 

4. Paper or textiles: Smooth plastered w'alls are often cov- 
ered with pajier or a textile; this treatment is effective in many 
furnishing schemes and is especially adaptable in old houses. 



HOME FURNISHING 41 

Wainscots. 

Wainscoting treatments formed by chair-rail or paneling 
of various heights suggest a variety of decorative effects which 
are appropriate for important rooms, such as living-room, 
dining-room, and hall. A paneled treatment of wood or of 
moldings and plaster is dignified and effective, provided the 
wall and window spaces will accommodate themselves to such 
an arrangement. Obviously, panelled treatments can be 
studied only in relation to the individual room. 

Trim of walls. 

The trim of the room may be thought of as part of the wall 
or as a frame for an opening. If the room is small or the open- 
ings many and not well placed, the trim should be subordinated 
to the wall treatment. But if the room is of good size and the 
windows and doors are well proportioned and well placed, 
the trim will l)ear more emphasis. 

Except in fireproof houses, a certain amount of woodwork 
is needed to cover the bony joints of construction and to com- 
plete the finish of the room. The same kind of wood and the 
same finish should be used throughout the room, with the 
possible exception of the floor. Since the woodwork furnishes 
both a structural and a decorative element in the room, its 
choice should be considered from both standpoints. The trim 
covering the joints and framing doors and windows, should 
be wide enough to look adequate for this service, but not so 
heavy nor so ornate as to be obtrusive in the part it plays in 
the background of the room. A good width for the trim for 
the openings in average rooms is between 33^ and 5 inches. 
Hard woods finished to show their character are excellent if 
the grain is not too conspicuous. Quartered oak with its modest 
grain and possibilities of finish is very fitting for the woodwork 
of a room in which oak furniture is to be used. 

Other woods, such as hard pine and cypress, are susceptible 
to treatment that makes them very effective. Woods of an 
inconspicuous grain, or cut so that the grain does not obtrude 
itself, should be chosen for trim. A wood with a bold swirhng 



42 .1 M.WIM. or linMH MAKIXC 

main (ir willi slioiij:; ((Hit I•:l^1s of li^lil and dark i> a jxxir choice 
for intciidi- work, for it is loo restless and insistent to take its 
place (luietly in any decorative selienie. Fortunately, the item 
of expense is a protect i(ni against tiie use of woods so an^res- 
sive in color as inahot^any, curly Midi, and the like. Such 
woods should be reserved for furniture. 

Tlic woodwork should i)lay a definite part in the decorative 
scheme of the room, harmoniziiif; with the walls hotli in char- 
acter and color. If the haiiuony camiot he secured by tran.s- 
parcnt stains, the woodwork should he j)ainted. In fact, in 
many old or rcadj'-made houses, paint for woodwork is tlie 
only means of securing a harmonious interior. 

Filler, stain, thin shellac, and wax are conmionly used to se- 
cure the transj)arent finish desirable for iiard woods. Wood.s 
with large or open grain, such as oak, chestnut, cj'press, and 
pine, require a filler to make a smooth even surface. This filler 
may be kept the same color as the wood, or it may be stained 
darker, or a very light whitish filler may be u.sed. The effect 
of this filler is to tone, to modify, or to emphasize the natural 
markings of the wood. Woods with a clo.se inconspicuous grain, 
such as maple and birch, do not require a filler, but can be 
toned by staining. Wax is a more pleasing finish for hardwoods 
than is varnish, wliich should be us(m1 only on bathroom floors 
or other places where dural)ilit3' is ])erhaps more important 
than appearance. The soft dull finish of a waxed surface is more 
appropriate to w'ood than the glaring shiny finish of varnish. 

Paint is an opaque finish used to cover w^oods having an un- 
pleasant or no visible grain. Such woods as soft pine, white 
wood, and cypress are good foundations for painted woodwork. 
By means of paint, any w^oodwork can be adjusted in color to 
its surroundings. This flexibility of paint in relation to color 
schemes is a strong recommendation in its favor for both old and 
new work and for all types of rooms. 

Doors. 

Doois of good pattern in various woods may be obtained 
read3'-ma(l(; in stantlard sizes. They should be of the same gen- 



HOME FURNISHING 43 

eral finish as the trim and other woodwork. Doors of uniform 
height on each floor contribute to unity of effect. The width 
may be varied for convenience. 

Mantelpieces, cornices, and picture-moldings. 

Any wood used in connection with such features as fireplaces 
should be consistent in character and finish with the other 
trim of the room. The mantel should be planned with and for 
the room, not purchased ready-made and grafted upon it. Like- 
wise any tile or brick facings used in the fireplace should har- 
monize in texture and color with the entire decorative scheme. 

A cornice of wood like the trim may mark the intersection 
of ceiling and side wall and should of course be finished like the 
other woodwork. A picture-molding marking this intersection 
is an effective finish for low rooms or those of ordinary height. 
A picture-molding so placed should be heavier than one lower 
on the wall. In some cases, a second molding may be used on 
the wall some distance below the one at the ceiling. This second 
molding then becomes the picture-rail. 

Ceiling. 

The treatment of the ceiling should harmonize with the 
finish of the walls and woodwork. Ordinarily the ceiUngs in 
dwellings are finished with plaster. This lends itself through 
the use of calcimine (water color paints), to any color scheme. 
Paper is a less desirable finish for ceilings. If it must be used, as 
sometimes happens in old houses where the ceiling has cracked 
or become discolored, a plain tone should be chosen. If a 
ceiling is cracked, canvas or burlap may be put over the old 
plaster and then paint or calcimine applied to it. 

Beamed ceilings produce an interesting structural and dec- 
orative effect. The beams should preferably be finished like 
the other woodwork in the room. If peculiar problems are 
presented by the woodwork, the finish of the beams may be 
considered only in relation to the ceiling. Beamed ceilings are 
often found in houses of early colonial architecture. They are 
also a feature of the new Craftsman houses. In the first case 



44 .1 MAMAL OF IIOMK MAKIXC 

tlicN' Wdiild ii-ii;ill\ tic |);iiiiici|, >iiic(' iiiosl ol llic u (Kxluork is 
|);iintc(l: ill tlic laiicr, tlicy woiiM Itc linislicd like the o.-ik or 
similar woods generally used. 

( 'ciliiifis of wood, except in slieatlied or paneled rooms, 
ai-c likely lo look heavy and op|)ressivo. In summer coltaKc-; 
and in some parts of the (•(Hintry, rooms sheathed and ceiled 
in yellow pine or cypress are often finished in the natural color 
and varnished. Paint is the only antidote and should he \ised 
on the ceilinjz; at least, after "cutliiiK'" the vai-nish. White 
metal ceilings are in line with the progress toward fireproof 
construction. They cannot as yet be obtained in pleasinp; pat- 
tern except for very larjre rooms, and even liere their construc- 
tion is unpleasantly obtmsive. 

Floors. 

Floors are made to be walked upon and are subject to hard 
usage. They should, therefore, be (kual)le. Floors cannot i)e 
easily changed; therefore they should be permanent in material 
and finish. Since they contribute to the color scheme of the 
loom, they should be finished accordingly. Floors continuous 
in color as far as the c}- e can see have a unifying effect. Wood 
is the material most used for fioors. Wood that is hard, of in- 
conspicuous grain, and responsive to color treatment should Ijc 
chosen. Well selected oak is probably the best. ]\Iaple and 
birch are very dural:)le, but light in color; hard pine is also 
possible and relatively inexpensive. The matter of color and 
finish can be regulated to some extent to suit the character of 
wood selected and the color scheme of the room. 

Hardwood floors should in general be finished like hardwood 
trim, except that caution should be observed in attempting dark 
stains, because all floors through usage tend to wear back to 
the natural color of the wood. Since all wood floors tend to 
darken in time, the rather light appearance of a new floor should 
be endured with patience. If after a period of time the tone 
of the floor still appears too light, it is easier to darken it slightly 
than to remove a dark mussy stain. Furthermore, rugs can 
always be relied on to remedy the color effect of the bare floor. 



HOME FURNISHING 45 

Softwood floors t)f pine, such as are often found in old houses, 
can be finished by filling the spaces between the boards with 
either a standard or home-made crack-filler and then applying 
two or more coats of good hard paint, such as the ordinarj^ deck 
paint. Some housekeepers have had success with a crack-filler 
made of flour paste into which a pulp of damp newspaper is 
beaten. Under all conditions, however, a painted floor is a 
compromise and will require frequent renewals. 

COLOR 

Color is more potent in creating the atmosphere of a house or 
room than is any other influence. Harmonious color will cover 
a multitude of sins in design, while no amount of good design 
will atone for discordant color. 

Color produces a distinct reaction on the human system; 
it is cheering, depressing, irritating, or restful, as the case may 
be. It is, therefore, of primary importance to understand the 
right use of color in the home. Since the question of color is 
involved in the finish of walls and of woodwork, it is the first 
factor to be considered in the treatment of an interior. 

Color has three generally recognizable characteristics: First, 
that quality that gives it its general or popular name and dis- 
tinguishes it from other colors — as red from green, or yellow- 
reds from purple-reds, j^ellow-greens from blue-greens, and the 
like. This quality is named by the scientists, hue. Hues, or 
colors, may in general be classed as warm or cool. Yellow, 
orange, red, and colors strongly tinged with these, connected 
as they are with ideas of sun and fire and blood, are the warm 
colors. Blue, green, and violet, and colors strongly tinged with 
these, associated in thought with cold and distant things like 
ice, the sky, the woods, and .purple hills, are the cool colors. 

A second characteristic or quality of color is the strength 
or brilliancy, termed by the scientists, chroma or intensity. 
By this quality, a strong or bright color is distinguished from 
a soft, dulled, or grayed color, as the red in the upper from 
the red in the under side of an autumn leaf. 

The third characteristic or quaUty is that which distinguishes 



4G .1 M.WIM or IIOMI: M.\KI\<; 

li^lii tioiii (l;iik colors, tcnncd \>\ the scientists, value. A 
popular iciiii toi- liiilit coloi's is tint ; i"or dark colors, shade. 

licamnizcd influences of colitr 

Hue. 

Colors ill wliicli llicrc is a .sii^ji;('stioii of yellow or orange or 
red, the waiiii colors, such as tones ol' tan or liuff or old fi;okl 
or hrown or 3'ello\v-tj;reeM, or the "wiirni grays," siicii as taupe 
or ''sand" or "mode" colors, are likely to pnjduce u warmth 
of atmos])liei-e that makes them in K<^'neral agreeable to live 
with. These colors are likely also to harmonize with the wood- 
work ill the average house and to furnish a becomnig back- 
ground for the usual wood and willow furniture. 

Red or reddish coloi's are too aggressive and insistent to be 
used in large quantities. lied also tends to diminish the ap- 
parent size of a room. 

Yellow and yellowish colors are in general light, bright, and 
cheerful in (>ffect. 

Jiluc or bluish colors, while they tend to increase the ap- 
parent size of a room, are inclined to absorl) the light and to 
be forbidding if used in large cjuantities. 

Green, which is a mixture of yellow and blue, and greenish 
colors are in general quiet and restful in effcn-t without l)eing 
depressing. 

Violet is the color characteristic of mystery and shadow 
and royalty, and should ])e avoitled or used with great dis- 
crimination in a home. 

In general, colors comjioscd of two or more colors, whether 
of paint, of dye, or the interweaving of colored threads in a 
fabric, are more interesting, more refined, and more atmos- 
pheric in effect than the very evident reds and yellows and 
blues. 

Intensity or ehroma. 

Strong or bright colors are not appropriate for use in large 
masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they are too 
insistent and aggressive and they do not easily harmonize 



HOME FURNISHING 47 

with the furnishings in the average home. These strong colors 
may be used in small masses, such as a bouquet of flowers, books, 
or a textile, to add a note of interest or to accent a color scheme. 
Dulled or grayed colors are in general appropriate to use 
in large masses, such as wall or floor coverings, because they 
are restful in effect and keep their place as background. A 
greater variety of these grayed colors may be used harmo- 
niously in the same room than would be possible with a com- 
bination of bright colors. 

Value. 

Light colors in general tend to increase the apparent size 
of a room, to make a room seem lighter, and to produce an 
effect of daintiness, of cleanliness, and of cheer; they also are 
more luminous and, therefore, very effective in artificial light. 
Used to excess, or inappropriately, light color may produce 
an effect of bareness or aloofness. 

Dark colors in general tend to diminish the apparent size 
of a room, to produce an effect of dignity or richness. Colors 
that are too dark are likely to be oppressive or to produce an 
effect of gloom or dinginess, and are very difficult to illuminate 
by night. Middle values, that is, colors that are about half- 
way between the extremes of light and dark, are in general 
more appropriate for the furnishings in living-rooms. Strong 
contrasts in light and dark, such as light woodwork with dark 
walls, or dark woodwork with light walls, dark figures on a 
light ground, or the opposite, produce a distracting and unrest- 
ful effect. 

Considerations governing color selection 

From the foregoing discussion it follows that : 

1. Southerly rooms with a superabundance of light and sun- 
shine need in general cool and dark colors to temper the light. 

2. Northerly rooms with no sunshine and too little light 
need in general light, yellowish colors to introduce a feeling 
of cheer and sunshine. 

3. Rooms that are comfortably lighted and sufficiently 
sunny are open to a variety of color treatments. 



4S .1 M.WCAL or U()\!E MAKISC 

4. Koonis tluit tiro ovci-lainc mikI yet arc coiiifortably liKhted 
may Ix' |j;iven a more frioiully aspect hy the use of warm colors 
that arc medium dark. 

5. In rooms that arc too small and yet are comfortaldy 
lifihlcd, a fceliiiL!; of space can i)e su^^icslccl l»y the use of liKht. 
or l)luisli colors. 

(■). In rooms in uhicli the woodwork is already finished and 
cannot he chanfi;ed, the color scheme is within limits prede- 
termined. I''rom it walls and fmiiishinKs must take their cue. 

7. Rooms that are comfortably larfi;e and li{i;ht and with no 
hampering conditions are open to a variety of color treatments. 

8. The living-room adapted to many uses and many pci-sons 
should be more diiinified and impersonal in color scheme than 
the other looms of the house. It sliould be more neutral in its 
general scheme in order to be adaptable to a greater variety 
of coloring in the smaller areas. Books, pictures, an open 
fire, flower arrangements, and other changing and accidental 
conditions inevitably bring man}' touches of brilliant and 
varying color into the living-room. 

9. A dining-room devoted to good cheer and used onlj' for 
short periods admits a livelier treatment. Sometimes dishes 
that have a decided color may well give the kejTiote to the 
color scheme. 

10. Since the bedroom is for sleep and rest, even though it 
is for personal use and allows a larger margin for individual 
preference than do other rooms, nothing should take precedence 
over those qualifications that fit it for its purj^ose. The white 
bed, white towels, and light furniture characteristic of the 
daintiness desirable in bedrooms, call for lighter colorings than 
do the family rooms. For bedrooms used also for both study 
and sitting-room, compromises nuist be made. The white 
bed is no longer suitable; the bedroom takes on the functions 
and, therefore, should assume the ai)pearance of a living-room 
as far as possible. 

11. Since the bathroom should appear, as well as be, im- 
maculate, all white or white with other light colors is most 
suitable. White with yellow for a bathroom on the north side 









3 M 






HOME FURNISHING 49 

of a house, white and l)hie or white and green for a sunny- 
bathroom, are good. 

12. For the kitchen, hght colors are cheerful and cleanly in 
appearance. They have the added value of so diffusing the 
light both by day and by night that there need be no dark 
corners to work in. 

It follows from all these manifest influences of color, that 
the rooms to be treated should be examined as to exposure, 
lighting, size, proportion, and use before determining the 
color scheme. 

Color for the whole interior 

A uniform coloring for the walls of a series of connecting 
rooms contributes to unity of effect. A sufficient variety in 
effect may be secured by varying the color or pattern of dra- 
peries and other furnishings in the different rooms. 

It seldom happens that all the rooms on a floor have the 
same exposure, or the same amount of light or the same use. 
Every need may be considered and yet a friendly harmony 
obtained by the use of closely related colors that may range 
from light to dark in value and through a series of related hues. 

The parts of the room as a background 

The ceiling, the side wall, and the floor form the background 
of the room against which all the furnishings and the occupants 
of the room are seen. Like the frame of a picture, the back- 
ground should be subordinate in color as well as in amount of 
detail. This limitation, far from minimizing the importance 
of the background, gives it an added distinction, and demands 
for it the most careful consideration. The function of the back- 
ground is to serve. While not obtruding itself, it should through 
its color supply a pervading influence that may be felt like an 
atmosphere. This province of the background is best filled, as 
has been said in the discussion of color, by subdued warm 
colors, not too dark, that harmonize with the more usual types 
of furnishings and methods of lighting. (See Plate III.) 

Ceiling, side walls, and floor are parts of one whole. They 
should, therefore, be keyed to the same color. This important 



50 .1 .U.l.Vr.l/. OF IIOME MAKISC 

point has often Itccii disrc^ardcil. Tlif cciliniis have hccn much* 
while, the lloois eolistriicf ed of aii\' eoii\eiiieiit wood withoill 
reference (o its eol(»r; (he color of the walls has heen chosen with- 
out reference to either floor or ceiliiifz;. In the dislrihiition of 
color \alues in the l»a(km-oun<l, the old analogy, often repeated, 
holds ^ood: the side walls of a room correspond in value to the 
middle distance in a landscape; the ceiling; corresj)onds t(j the 
sky which is li,<2;htest. of the three; the floor to the j^round, which 
is the darkest. This is not a mere fanc}'. A very dark ceiliii}^ 
or sky is threatening and oppressive in effect. The dark tones 
of the ground contribute to an effect of stability and support 
that are funtlamental in a serviceable floor. 

Walh and trim. 

The wall color, Ixnng most in evidence as a background, cover- 
ing a greater area than either ceiling or floor and serving as the 
connecting link betw'een these, should l)e the determining factor 
in the selection of the color scheme and naturally would bo 
decided first. The color of the wall should be selected after a 
diagnosis of such considerations as location, size, lighting and 
use of the room, and the recognized influence of color already 
discussed (pages 40 and 47). The color of ceiling, floor, and 
w'oodwork would then be chosen in relation to it. 

If the color of the trim, which is really a part of the wall, 
has been determined first, the color of the wall should be related 
to it. Golden oak, c^-press, and mahogany furniture limit the 
choice of the wall color to tones closely related to that of the 
wood. If a householder is already supplied with furniture of a 
decided character or color, the choice of color scheme is limited 
in the same way. The furniture in such a case will detennine the 
color of the w^alls. 

Woodw^ork painted to match the wall color increases the 
apparent size of the room; it also render less conspicuous ir- 
regulai'ities and poor design in doors and windows. I'sually 
the woodwork may well be made a tone lighter or a tone 
darker than the wall. Paint for the woodwork in bedrooms 
or any room w^ith a light color scheme should be toned; a 



HOME FURNISHING 51 

cream or ivory tone is usually more gracious than a dead 
white. 

If it is necessary to finish the woodwork before the wall color 
can be known, a neutral color is the only safe choice. 

Ceiling. 

While the ceiling should be keyed to the color of the side wall, 
this should be done very carefully, since any light ceiling will 
absorb some color from the side wall. The ordinary method of 
lighting a room by windows placed in the side wall obviates to 
a considerable degree the effect of a white ceiling. The light 
strikes the side wall directly, leaving the ceiling inevitably much 
darker than white. This should be kept in mind in selecting 
the tint for the ceiling, lest it be too dark for the effective light- 
ing of the room; and it should not be forgotten when a ceiling 
color is extended to the side wall. In such a case the color that 
comes on a side wall should be several tones darker in order to 
appear of the same tone as the ceiling color. 

Floors. 

It is more difficult to regulate the color of wood floors than 
that of ceiling or side wall, because while it is desirable to re- 
late the color of the floor to the side wall, there is a distinct 
limit to the range of color in wood floors. Floors are often too 
light in value, but for practical reasons this cannot always be 
avoided. Whatever has to be accepted in the color of the floor, 
however, may fortunately be corrected by a good choice of rugs. 

PATTERN (plates IV, v) 

An exhaustive discussion of pattern would involve the whole 
theory and practice of design, but the usual mistakes of the 
home-maker in choosing wall paper, drapery, upholstery, and 
rugs may be avoided by an understanding of what constitutes 
good pattern and the kind of pattern appropriate for different 
uses. On account of the constant influx of novelty goods that 
tend to bewilder and confuse the purchaser, a fund of common 
sense and a determination not to be sidetracked by passing 
fads are necessary in order to make a wise selection. 



52 .1 MAMM. (fF lUKMi: MAKlSd 

Chnrnctcridicsi of good pattern 

T]\r motifs (Miiployt'd for patterns arc of two kinds: (1) ah- 
stract or nconictric forms which arc simply harnif)nious shapes 
so repeated as to make a pleasing; j)atlcrn; for example, the 
(Jreek key pattern; (2) concrete or nature forms " convent ion- 
aHz(Ml," or adapted to their use as pattern; for example, the 
French Heur-de-lis. 

Tlie di-tinction of a desi{i;n depends not on the orifiin of the 
motif, liut on its decorative treatment and color. The effective- 
ness of a i)attern as an element in house furnishinfj; dejK'nds 
on its adaptability in color and desij^n to the service it is to 
render in the room for which it is selected. A fabric with less 
intrinsic merit than another in pattern and color may be the 
better choice in some instances, by reason of its iiappier rela- 
tion to the other furnishinjis in the room. By far the greater 
number of motifs are taken from nature. An}' nature motif 
must be conventionalized, or adapted to its use as pattern, by 
chan^inp; its form, size, or color, and arransinj; it in an orderly 
way, ke(>ping in mind not its origin from nature, but its purpose 
as decoration. Any pretense at naturalistic modeling or shad- 
ing should be very formal in character. That it is pattern and 
not picture should never be lost sight of in judging a design for a 
flat surface. Medallions, scrolls without beginning or end, 
baskets of flowers or fruits, fluttering ribbons and bowknots, 
are all absurd substitutes for real design. 

The figures in a design are parts of one whole and should be 
connected or related in some way. Widely separated motifs 
tempt the eye to jump from one spot to another and provoke 
one to count rows, and mentally rearrange the pattern. All 
effect of restfulness is thereby lost. Patterns that cover the 
ground well are in general better for furnishings than scattered 
spots. Some patterns that would be ol)jcctionable on a fiat 
wall, however, may be used acceptably in drapery, since the 
fulln(>ss of the folds rearranges the design. 

One of the characteristics of a good design is its appropriate- 
ness to the material in which it is developed. Patterns may be 




Plate IV. — Types of rugs with suitable pattern, developed in line and in mass, 
in self tones and in contrasting and vari-colored effects. 



HOME FURNISHING 53 

woven, embroidered, or printed — stenciled, stamped, or stained 
— on a fabric. The pattern may appropriately declare the 
material in which it is developed. Woven patterns should pref- 
erably suggest warp and woof. The design in a rag carpet, 
for example, naturally appears in stripes made by the woof, 
which is much more prominent than the finer threads of the 
warp. There is a great variety of patterns appropriate to printed 
wall papers that may be selected in preference to those that 
imitate leather or burlap or silk or oilcloth. 

A pattern may be expressed in lines alone on a background 
of another color, or it may be in masses or spots that are lighter 
or darker or different in color from the background. In such 
patterns the shapes rather than the details are important. 
Sometimes the pattern is of masses that are broken up by a 
variety of detail and color. 

Pattern as used for walls and floors 
Walls and floors are flat solid surfaces. Their effectiveness 
and comeliness depend on this structural fact and this must be 
borne in mind in the selection of pattern for them. Any varia- 
tion of surface would impair the function of wall or floor. Any 
suggestion by the pattern of such defects is manifestly out of 
place. Wall patterns of trellises and vines, of realistic flowers 
or fruit or landscape, of simulated columns, or of panels made 
of pictured moldings should, therefore, be avoided. For the 
same reasons, realistic flowers and animals are out of place in 
pattern. The more realistic these motifs are, the poorer is the 
design. Because the effect of solidity in walls and floor must 
be maintained, the pattern should seem very flat. 

Since both walls and floor are backgrounds, the pattern 
should be unobtrusive in color and design. Fantastic ornament, 
violent color, or strong contrasts of any sort are out of place 
in a background. 

Since walls are upright surfaces, stripes, if inconspicuous, 
flgures in which the vertical dominates or that are so arranged 
as to give an up-and-down rather than a crosswise or diagonal 
movement, are good types for wall pattern. 



51 A MAM AL OF HOME MAKlSd 

Floors arc horizontal surfaces that arc viewed from every 
(lircclion. The patlerii on (he lloor should, Ihereforc, he efTect- 
ive from any anj^le. (loenielric or very conventional j)at terns 
{•(lualiy fiood from every j)oint of view are tlie best choice for 
dooi' coverint's. 

SELECTION OF FURNISHINGS 

M'all coverings 

A textile may he used lo cover smooth plastered walls. All 
sorts of materials that give the desired effect, from the cheap- 
est to the most expensive, have been employed for this purpose. 
Canvas, burlaj), frnisscloth, antl other weaves of jjleasing text- 
ure are effective when appropriately used. None of these, 
however, compares w'ith paper in popularity as a wall coverinp;. 
Paper is comparatively inexpensive, is easily hung, is made in 
an innnense variety of colorings and pattei'n and a wide variety 
of textures. Wall paper has an advantage over paint in that 
the exact effect may be known before it is purchased, by ex- 
perimenting with a roll of it in the vciy room and light in which 
it is to ])e used. If there is cause for doubt, a i)lain i)ai)er should 
be selected for walls. There are many plain pajiers of good color 
from which to choose. The oatmeal textures jjroljably offer 
the most desirable and satisfactoiy coloring among the inex- 
pensive papers. The silk-fibered papers, while more expensive, 
compen.satc in color and quality for the greater investment of 
money. 

Another safe choice in paper is one nearly plain in effect but 
the surface of which is broken by dots or dashes or splashes or 
other slight variations that give a little "bloom" or vibration 
of color. Paper with strii:)es that are not too wide or of too 
conspicuous contrast are good, especially in low rooms. A 
plain paper sometimes show-s up too conspicuously the un- 
evenness in old walls. In such a case a paper with a small con- 
ventional figure, or one with a self-toned foliage pattern is 
better. A jiaper with a good pattern may be very effective in 
a hall or corridor or a room with few or no pictures and plain 
draperies. It helps to furnish the room. A large-figured paper 



HOME FURNISHING 55 

in a small room is out of scale and makes the room look 
smaller. 

A figured wall-paper may be used as a frieze in a large room. 
Such a frieze is generally more effective than one of the stock 
border patterns, and is more easily adapted in width to varied 
requirements. A figured frieze is often a decorative finish 
above a high paneled wainscot. 

A border of unobtrusive pattern and color may serve on oc- 
casion to define an edge or emphasize a direction. But the idea 
that every room must have a border because fashion so decrees 
is absurd and unreasonable. Festoons of flowers and conspicu- 
ous ornament of any sort that tend to draw the eyes upward 
unpleasantly is out of place. In rooms of ordinary height, 
borders should generally be omitted. They are the offspring of 
the traditional cornice whose oiiginal office was to make the 
division between ceiling and side wall. A picture-molding 
placed at this intei'section is an excellent finish in a low room 
or one of ordinary height. If the 'room is too high, the ceil- 
ing color may be brought down on the side wall and the 
picture-molding placed at the intersection of ceiKng and wall 
colors. 

Hangings for windows and doors (Figs. 19-23) 
Hangings are useful to temper the light, to obstruct an un- 
pleasing view, to preserve privacy, and to furnish a decora- 
tive effect. Door draperies are used for the temporary separa- 
tion of rooms or for decorative effect. 

The types of window hangings are shades, curtains, and val- 
ances. 

The purpose of a shade is to regulate light and to secure 
privacy; therefore, a shade should always be opaque. A glare 
of color in a room through a shade of intense hue is sometimes 
more trying than a flood of sunshine. Shades, being next to the 
window, affect the exterior color scheme of the house and should 
be chosen with this in mind. Shades need not on that account 
be at variance with the interior coloring of the house, for a 
neutral tone may be chosen that will not violate any color 





Fio. 19. — A method of haugiiiy twu Sv.-t:> ui curtains in recessed windows. 



HOME FURNISHING 57 

scheme, or double-faced shades may be used. These are only a 
little more expensive and may, if necessary, be colored to order. 
In buying for a permanent home, it is economy to select shades 
of a good quality. 

Shades should be hung inside the trim as near the glass as 
possible without interfering with the operation of the window. 
If this is not possible, the shades should be hung near the inner 
edge of the casing or window trim. Shades may be hung so as 
to pull up from the bottom instead of down from the top. There 
are also fixtures which make it possible to adjust the shade so 
that it may cover any portion of the window at any time. These 
adjustable shades are particularly desirable for schoolroom win- 
dows exposed to direct sunlight for a large part of the day, 
for kitchen windows on the south side of the house, and for 
windows in any sunny workroom. 

Besides shades and blinds that shut out the light, the windows 
of most rooms need draperies to soften the hard Unes of glass 
and wood, to temper the light, to veil a view, to complete the 
background of the room, and to add a decorative note in color 
or pattern. 

Each room presents an individual problem in curtains. 
Harmony, simplicity, and suitability are the guiding thoughts 
in the solution. Taste is more effective than money. With the 
modern ideas of the home as a place in which lives are to be 
lived, of rooms rationally furnished for everyday use, windows 
swathed in festoons of draperies, sweeping the floor, harboring 
dust, inviting germs, and excluding the air, have no place. The 
much trimmed, festooned and lambrequined draperies are not 
now much in use; their return should never be allowed. How- 
ever rich the material used for draperies may be, they should 
be simply made and so hung as to fall in straight folds. In a 
case of doubt, the simplest solution of the problem of window 
draperies should be accepted. 

The choice in material ranges from filmy nets, transparent 
gauzes, scrim, and muslin through soft silk and cotton fabrics, 
linens and coarse canvas weaves, brocades, damask, and tapes- 
trj^ velvets and velours; in color and design from one un- 




ill \l 



D 











... 
























t= 


^ -L .U. 


.=r 



llf- 


' I 


1 


il 
1 


1 






JuJLJ 


', . -i 



Fir,. 20.— Four methods of curtaining a douhlc-hung window: A, straight 
curtains hung within the w'indow trim. B, a half, or sash, curtain 
often used for privacy. C, an inconsistent way of hanging draperj', 
which could he remedied by raising the rod, and extending it to the 
length of the top molding. D, a method of hanging curtains to cover 
an ugly trim or to widen the window in effect. 



HOME FURNISHING 59 

broken neutral tone to the most complex variation of hues 
and patterns; in price from a few cents to many dollars a yard. 
Any fabric may be used, provided it is suitable. Effects in 
design, color, texture, and pattern that harmonize with the 
room and its furnishings are the distinguishing characteristics 
of the most tasteful selections of hangings, rather than rich 
and costly materials. 

Scrim, colored chintzes, cretonnes or any other dainty wash- 
able material is appropriate for a bedroom. Bright or gaily- 
figured hangings may be used in rooms devoted to good cheer 
and occupied for only short periods, such as a dining-room or a 
porch sitting-room. Patterns and colors that are entertaining 
in a tea-room might be unbearable in a living-room. For 
rooms in constant use, or for rooms that should be reposeful 
in their influence, such as a library, a living-room, or a study, 
near-neutral colors and unobtrusive patterns are essential. 

A city dwelHng, close to the street and overshadowed by other 
buildings, a country house situated on a hilltop, or in a valley, 
or by the sea, or in a setting of open fields or gardens sur- 
rounded by trees and shrubbery, present different problems 
in window treatment. Velvets, damasks, and handsome linen 
are appropriate for the city house, and the greater formality 
and reserve which are its natural characteristics. An effect 
of freshness is in keeping with the environment of the country 
home. Cretonnes, chintzes, and printed linen with brighter 
coloring than would be appropriate in the city home, are in 
harmony with the birds and flowers and outdoor country. 
Simple curtains of unbleached cotton for the small-paned 
cottage window with its ledge of flowering plants suggest the 
charm of the little house across the sea. For the house used 
only in summer, curtains should of course be of washable 
materials. 

The lighting of the room is an important consideration in 
selection of window draperies. If the room is poorly lighted, 
thin draperies light in value, tending toward yellow — the most 
luminous color — will be the most effective choice, provided it is 
consistent with the color of the walls. If the room is too light 





Fig. 21. — Two methods of curtaining a group of windows. 



HOME FURNISHING 61 

and sunny, darker and cooler colors and heavier fabrics should 
be used. Curtain material should never be chosen without 
hanging a large sample in the window of the room in which it 
is to be used, because the color effect is frequently quite dif- 
ferent under transmitted light. Material with a black thread 
is likely to look dull and dingy; a fabric woven with blue and 
yellow threads becomes green when seen against the hght. 
The effect of artificial light on the draperies should also be 
considered, since colors change surprisingly from their day- 
time effects. 

Valance is the term used for a short drapery hung at the 
top of the window. It should preferably extend across the en- 
tire curtain space, or in emergency cover only that space be- 
tween the curtains. Valances are decoratively useful in fur- 
nishing a continuation in color and line between curtains that 
hang too far apart, or in emphasizing the shape of the window. 
They may serve as a decorative connecting link between the 
outside curtains at a group of windows, making it possible to 
dispense with other drapery in the group. Valances emphasize 
the horizontal in a room. 

Portieres, or door draperies, sometimes serve in place of 
doors in the openings between rooms where only a temporary 
separation is required. They may serve also to soften the 
lines of the trim, to cover an expanse of objectionable wood in 
the doors, or to add a decorative note of color or pattern. 
There is a wide variety of fabrics to choose from. Generally 
a heavy fabric hangs better and seems more appropriate in a 
doorway than a light one, and a double-faced material is simpler 
to make up. Manifestly, skeleton draperies composed of cords 
and tassels, strings of beads and shells, are an absurd substi- 
tute for a useful drapery. Door draperies may continue the 
color of the walls, or, like the window drapery, may be of a 
contrasting color. If the rooms connected by the opening 
require different color treatment, the portiere may be made 
double. The same considerations regarding pattern that 
guide the selection of window hangings are applicable to door 
drapery. 



02 .1 MAMM. or Ill/Ml-: MAKJMJ 

Color and jxittrni. 

C'oloi is f)f first iiiipnii.incc iti t lie dccoiativc clTcct of window- 
han^iii^s. AN'liifc ciiifaiiis may he ai)i>n)i)nafc in a room with 
white woodwork, white ccihuK, Jmd hy;ht wails, for they arc 
in such ca-c in harmony with the general color scheme, Imt 
they are not <i|)|)roi)riate for rooms of darker cf)lor. Window- 
hansinj^s should j!;enerally liarmoiiize in ime with the walls of 
the room. If the hanp;iu.u;s are of exactly the same color as 
the side wall, the result is likely to be monotonous. But if 
the room is small, the openings many, and the other furnishings 
in strong color contrast to the walls, a close match in color 
between walls and draperies may produce a most restful effect. 
If the walls are plain and not covered with pictures ant! other 
objects that attract undue attention, the draperies may be 
stronger in color and more pronounced in pattern, con-^tituting 
the strong decorative note in the room. In general, provided 
the colors arc harmonious and the pattern not too pronounced, 
it is safe to use striped or figured draperies with plain walls, 
and plain draperies with walls that have a pattern. Figiu-ed 
draperies may be used effectively with striped wall covering. 
The best designs for drapery, as for wall covering, are those 
that cover the ground and present no violent contrast in color 
or pattern. 

Window draperies may contribute largely to the color effects 
described in rooms of different exposure, or of ditTerent locali- 
ties. The warmth and light contained in soft tones of yellow 
and orange can be counted on to counteract a feeling of cold 
and gloom. Darker and cooler colors may be used when there 
is much sun or heat. 

Texture. 

Texture affects the atlajilability of the hangings. Texture 
is the quality of material made known to us originally, as its 
name signifies, through touch, l)ut by experience is equally 
recognizable through sight. A\'ords used to descriiie textures 
are accordingly descriptive of feeling, such as rough, smooth, 
hard, soft, velvety, silky, crepy, coarse, fine, firm, loose. Burlap, 



HOME FURNISHING 63 

for example, is rough and coarse compared with India silk. 
Tightly woven linen is firm and hard in effect. Velvets and 
velours are soft. Burlap, monk's cloth, canvas, and similar 
textures are appropriate in rooms finished in rough plaster 
with oak woodwork and mission furniture. Silk and satin or 
mercerized fabrics are more appropriately used with wood of 
such grain or texture as mahogany or satinwood or with painted 
wood. Variations in texture produced by different weaves, 
patterns, or colorings may give even inexpensive materials 
so distinguished a quality as to make them appropriate for 
use in very dignified surroundings. Some of the designs from 
priceless tapestries in European museums have been printed 
on linen and may thus be enjoyed at moderate cost. 

Treatment as to number in one window. 

Ordinarily one pair of curtains is sufficient to answer the 
purpose of a window drapery. Especially in rooms with few 
or very small windows, swathing with drapery should be avoided 
since it produces a stuffy effect. Casement cloth, many of 
the heavy nets, and sunfast materials, cretonnes, chintzes, 
and printed linens are very effective when used as single hang- 
ings. It is sometimes necessary to think of curtains as screens 
to shut out the public or a disagreeable view. Curtains may 
be so chosen as to perform this service and yet admit light. 
Sash curtains hung across the lower half of the window are 
the most natural answer to this problem. They are often use- 
ful in a bathroom or kitchen. 

Two sets of curtains are sometimes required for practical 
or decorative reasons. For example, in windows near a street, 
one set of curtains may shut out the gaze of passers-by while 
admitting the light, and the other serve as a screen in the even- 
ing and a decorative note at all times. In recessed windows, 
such as are found in brick or stone houses, or in a bay window 
or a group of windows, thin curtains may be used next the 
glass, and heavier draperies harmoniously related to the side 
wall may be hung on the trim and drawn to shut off the recess 
or the whole window group when desired. 



64 



.1 MAM AL or llO.Mi: MA KIM! 



>JwI 







.,.jL_LJ-pl. 


"" < 






i 

1 

" V 


t4 


i 





Fig. 22. — Tlufu arraiiKciiu'iil.s of \;i1;iik'o and curtain, the first 
being the least desirable. 








:.4>«^ 









O M 



HOME FURNISHING 65 

If two sets of curtains are used, one pair is hung next the 
glass. These are called glass, or sometimes sash, curtains. 
As the function of these is to cut out the view but admit the 
light, they should be of thin material, such as net, plain lace, 
scrim, gauze, thin silk, mercerized cotton, sunfast fabric, or 
casement cloth. Such an inner curtain should be consistent 
in texture with the outer drapery; for example, with velvet or 
silk or any rich material, net of good quality or possibly mar- 
quisette is a good choice. With linen or cretonne, scrim is 
better. With cretonne or similar patterned hangings, the 
inner curtains should match the ground in tone; white, if the 
ground is white, cream or ecru if the ground is of that color; 
otherwise, one is likely to look faded or discolored. In thin 
materials, too coarse a mesh should be avoided on account 
of shrinking; an even weave is more easily made up and hangs 
better. These glass curtains soften the glare and are a pro- 
tection for the heavier window draperies. They are always 
in evidence on the outside of a house and should be selected 
with this in mind. If all the glass curtains in the house are 
alike, or if in the city those in the front of the house are alike, 
a pleasing unity of effect from the outside is conserved. 

The over, or outer, pair of curtains which is in more direct 
relation with the walls of the room may be made of any of the 
heavy materials already mentioned. This over-drapery may 
be used to regulate the light during the day, and, by shutting 
out the outside world, to give an effect of intimacy at night. 
At any time it may furnish a decorative note in the room. 

Hanging of draperies. 

If the woodwork of the room has been so selected and finished 
as to make of it a structural decorative feature, it should bear 
somewhat the same relation to the draperies as a picture-frame 
to a picture, outlining and defining that which is inclosed. In 
this case the draperies, if there is only one set, should preferably 
be hung inside the trim; if there are two sets, the outside one 
would probably need to be hung on the trim, but should be 
kept as near the inner edge as possible. 



66 .1 MAMAL or IIOMK-MAKISC 

\';iryiii^; types of window const luct ion rcciuirc (lifTcrcnt 
mctliods of liaiininj; draperies. Often in the ease of ready- 
made dwellings, the wood is so (hsturhirjK in color or finish, 
or tht! size and placing of the various openinfjs in the room 
arc so unfortunate that it is necessary to cover the trim in 
order to jinxkice a }z;ood result. If all the windows in the room 
are of the same size and the same kind and placed on the same 
level, the problem is simple. 

If there are two .sets of curtains, the problem is varied only 
l)v the sort of fixtures u.sed. The question is more c{)mi)lex 
when there are several varieties of windcnvs in the room, with 
doors requiring draperies besides. The most important or 
dominant opening should in general indicate the treatment. 

Casement or French windows that open out are comi)liant 
to the .same treatment and arrangement of draperies as douljJe- 
hung windows. If casement windows open in, only one set 
of curtains can be managed easily. The.se may be hung di- 
rectly on the windows, and be confined by rods with rings 
at both top and bottom. If a .second set of draperies is used 
with such windows, the rod from which the\' are suspended 
must reach from the outer edge of the trim or even beyond 
this edge so as to free the curtains when the window is opened. 

Draperies should always hang straight; fashion should never 
be allowed to be a determining factor. A\'hen curtains are 
looped back, disturbing lines at variance with the structural 
features of the room are produced and simplicity is lost. If 
it is desirable to draw curtains ba:ck, the folds may still hang 
straight. 

Curtains ju.st long enough to escape the sill arc appropriate 
in most cases but if for any reason they must be hung to cover 
the trim, they should cover sill and apron as well. Sometimes 
when the design of the window contains a paneled space below, 
long curtains just escaping the floor are more consistent with 
the type of window than those of sill length. 

Valances hung between curtains are appropriate onl\- when 
these curtains are not to be drawn; in such cases they should 
be of the same fullness and should hang in the same sort of 



HOME FURNISHING 
A 



67 




B 




Fig. 23. — Three types of valance and curtain arranged to cover the trim. 
A, a simple gathered valance; B, a simple type of formal fitted valance; 
C, a type of valance in which the figure governs the method of hanging. 



68 .1 M.wiM. or iioMi: MAKixn 

folds as ihc curtain. Xalanccs .should picfcralily We extondod 
acros.s tlio wliolc window and .sliould liaiiK <>'> a scparale rod 
in order not to interfere with thr independent adju.'^tinent of 
the curtain.'^. The \alance usually han^s from the .same height 
as the curtain; liut in the ca.se of a window with a transom, 
the vahmce ma>', if the? construction of the window allows, 
hang from the top of the transom and fall only far enough to 
cover comfortably the top of the ciu'tains. 

Portieres are hung in the same general way as curtains; 
.sometimes on the trim but more often between the door jambs. 

Mcasurinfj draperies for ivindows and door.s. 

The space to be covered bj' the drapery should be measured 
accurately. livery measurement .should be taken with a 
yardstick or four-foot rule. A tape-measure is liable to stretcli. 
A diagram of the window should be made and the measure- 
ments indicated upon this. 

Length. 

The space that the curtain is to cover from the top of the 
heading to the bottom of the hem when finished should be 
determined. An allowance of 5 or G inches should be left for 
"crawl" and for the making up of any unlined curtain that is 
to have a shirred heading, a run for the rod, and a 2-inch hem 
at the bottom. If the curtains are to be \vashed frequently, 
and especially if the>' are of material with a coarse mesh, more 
should be allowed for shrinkage. This extra length may be 
disposed of by making three thicknesses in the hem. If .sewed 
by hand, the hem can be ripped easily and rehemmed after 
washing. If there is no heading, only 4 inches need be allowed 
for making. In estimating the quantity of material, allowance 
must be made for the "repeat'' of the pattern in matching 
the design. Sometimes w^hen there is a large design and con- 
siderable waste, the parts cut out can be used in the valance. 
If the pattern has a figure conspicuous in size or shape or color, 
the drapery .should l)e planned .so that this figure comes at the 
same distance fioin the top in both curtjiins of one wijadow ;uid 



HOME FURNISHING 69 

preferably in all the windows in the room. The drop in differ- 
ent patterns varies from a few inches to several feet and is an 
important consideration in measuring and cutting figured 
materials. 

Materials suitable for window drapery come in many widths, 
from 31 inches to 52 inches or even 72 inches. For windows 
of average width, 50-inch material may be used to good ad- 
vantage if pattern and texture permit, by cutting it in two 
lengthwise and making both curtains in the pair from one length 
of drapery. 

Width. 

Window drapery should, theoretically, be sufficiently wide 
to cover comfortably the whole window even if it is seldom 
necessary to do this. The width of the whole space plus from 
one-third to one-half the space to be covered, according to the 
thickness of the material, furnishes an agreeable fullness. 
When the curtains are purely decorative, as is sometimes the 
case with the outer drapery, or when only one pair is used 
with a valance in a group of windows, less fullness may be 
sufficient. 

Lining. 

If the curtains are to be lined, allowance should be made 
for the heading at the top and, ordinarih^, for 2 inches to be 
turned up at the bottom, that is, as much for making as in 
the unlined curtain. 

If the curtains are to be finished with a gimp or fringe, 1 
inch is enough to allow for making, since in this case the fining 
should come nearly to the edge. 

For the lining, the same length should be allowed as for the 
curtain, minus the width of the heading. If the material is 
heavy, more must be allowed for the lining, since the outside 
is likely to sag. If the outside is considerably heavier than 
the lining, or if there is a difference in the elasticity of the two 
materials, the curtains should be sewed only at the top and 
allowed to hang for two or three weeks before finishing. Fifty- 



70 .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKL\(! 

incli sjitcoii sMital)lc for lining ciirtriins is to he found in flu' 
upholstery dc'j)artMK'nl>. 

\ alaiiccs. 

The onhiiary valance of cretoinie or thin material is gathered 
or j)laited and made with a iieadin};. Such valances vary from 
12 to 18 inches in vertical lenj^th, accordin<i; to the size of the 
window and the typo of room, whether a bedrfKjm or a living- 
room. For short casement window^s or for a hetlroom, a valance 
not more than 8 inches wide is sometimes very efTective. The 
W'idth of the window space to l)e coveicd j)lus from one-third 
to one-half its width should allow sufHeient fullness for the 
valance. If the valance is to l)e plaited, the length necessary 
for each plait should be multiplied by the number of plaits 
and added to the length of the rod, plus 2 inches for making. 
For the heading, to the length of the finished valance should 
be added the same allowance as for curtains, 4 inches for the 
heading and run at the top, 13/2 inches for the hem at the 
bottom. For a gathered valance in a window 3 feet wide, 
one width of 52-inch material will allow sufficient fullness. 
For a flat valance, the vertical width of the valance is measured 
at the widest part, and 2 inches addetl for making. For the 
horizontal length of such a valance, the width of the window 
space to be covered is measured, or, in the case of a curved 
rod, the length of the rod, and 2 inches added for making. 
If there are plaits or pipes in such a valance, the amount re- 
quired for each one nmst be calculated, and this added to the 
length of the valance. 

Portieres. 

For portieres hung from a pole by rings, the space to be 
covered by the hanging finished is that from the bottom of the 
pole to within 2 inches of the floor. This space is required in 
the interest both of cleanliness and appearance. For portieres 
with a run for the rod, with or without heading, allowance 
must be made as for curtains. Portieres often require lining, 
in which case 3 inches in addition to the length when finished 



HOME FURNISHING 71 

should be allowed. Some materials "crawl" in use, but most 
fabrics that are used for portieres are heavy and tend to 
sag. 

Making draperies. 

Curtains. 

Before cutting, the material should be studied carefully to 
see whether there is any up and down, right and wrong side, 
or matching of figures to be considered. 

When possible one should cut by thi-ead. In the case of some 
cheap printed goods, this is not practicable, but such curtains 
are Hkely to hang askew after they have been laundered. 

In making curtains, a large table that one can walk around 
should be used. 

Glass curtains and any curtains made of thin textiles or 
unHned may be finished at the top (1) with a hem or casing for 
the rod, (2) with a heading and a run for the rod below the 
hem, (3) with a hem and rings sewed on to the edge of the cur- 
tain or with rings sewed on to the fine of the hem so that they 
are invisible. Curtains that are hung on rings are more easily 
moved back and forth; but if the curtains need frequent laun- 
dering, the rings may be troublesome. 

Twice the diameter of the rod, or more, should be allowed 
for the width of the run or casing, to provide for shrinking and 
the easy adjustment of the curtains. 

Thin curtains are better gathered or shirred. 

Ample width for a heading in limp material is 1}^ inches; 
if the heading is wider, the folds lop over in an untidy way. 
Two inches is not too wide a heading if the curtains are of a firm 
material that stands up well. 

For full length curtains for large windows, 3 inches is a good 
width for the hem at the bottom. For glass curtains or curtains 
of thin material, 2 inches is sufficient. The hem may be turned 
in its full width, thus making three thicknesses of material. 
In any case this gives firmness and weight that makes the cur- 
tain hang well, and in the case of washable curtains furnishes 
an opportunity to counteract the effect of shrinkage. Hem- 



72 1 l/.l\/ .1/. or IK) Ml: MAKlSd 

stitcihiiifi or faj^olinj^ is an cxccllciil (iiiisli for scrim or iiiarfiuis- 
otto, and it ^;iv('s a touch of distinct ion to the curtain. 

("urtains of chintz and some other materials may he tiirne<| 
up on the lif^ht side, and an edj^e of fi;imj) or a narrow fringe 
nia>- he sewed on. Attractive e(lfrinfrs for chintz are oh(ainahl< . 
and when cliintz curtains are used in livinj^ or other family 
rooms, tliese f^imps make an effective finish. In this case, the 
wi(hh of the fiimp is enouizli to allow at tlie bottom for makiiifr. 
In jfeneral, tiie hemstitcliin<r oi- other finish f)f a curtain begin.s 
at the top of the inside of the curtain and continues across the 
lower etijie. There is no icason why it should not be continued 
up the outside edj^c, thus making the edges reversible. 

Line(i curtains. 

Many materials used for the outer window drapery should be 
lined, especially for windows subjected to the heat and glare of 
the sun. Lining is often desirable even when there are glass 
curtains, both for the protection of the material, if this is expen- 
sive or likely to fade, and for the effect in the room. Some fab- 
rics are much more effective when lined; others are much hand- 
somer unlincd. The pattern in cretonne, for example, comes out 
much better when there is no lining, while in printed linens 
the pattern is often almost obUterated and the ground looks 
dense and dull if made up without a lining. 

If the curtain to be lined has a heading, this shoukl generally' 
be made b}^ turning over the outside material at the top. es- 
peciall}^ if the heading is likely to fall over, or is of plaits which 
are intended to turn over. 

When curtains arc to be dined, they should be placed face 
down on the table. After cutting off the selvage, which is 
otherwise likely to draw, the edges are turned in and basted 
down. The lining should be basted on to the outside first at 
the top, then across the curtain at frequent intervals throughout 
the length of the curtain. The edges of the lining are then 
turned in and basted to the outside, letting the edge of the lining 
come to about '/ir. inch from the edge of the outside. The 
curtain is finished at the top, and if it is of heavy material, 



HOME FURNISHING 73 

allowed to hang for three weeks or more before finishing either 
the sides or the bottom. 

Valances. 

The ordinary valance of cretonne or thin material is gathered 
or plaited and made with a heading. Gathered valances are 
made in the same way as gathered curtains. For plaited val- 
ances, the box plait is generally used. The plaits may be very 
near together or at some distance apart. The width of plaits 
and spaces must be carefully estimated, and if the plaits are a 
wide distance apart, this spacing must be determined with 
great accuracy. In figured material, the figure often indicates 
the best spacing. The plaits may be taken up like a tuck, 
basted carefully, pressed to produce the boxplait, the basting 
ripped out, and the valance allowed to hang free from the rod. 
The casing for the rod is stitched to the back at the base of the 
heading. The casing should be so wide that the outline of the 
rod is not visible on the right side; or a flat tape may be sewed 
on at the base of the heading and hooks attached to this. 
Plaited valances are more formal and finished in appearance 
than gathered or shirred valances. They should be measured 
accurately, sewed firmly, pressed well, and hung straight. 

The shaped valance made over buckram and with interlining 
is suitable for the richest material, such as velvet, velour, or 
damask, and for the most stately rooms. When such materials 
are used, a professional can generally be employed to make them 
up; therefore, only the simplest type of flat valance will be de- 
scribed here. A simple shape should be chosen with few or no 
curves. A pattern is cut from heavy paper and fitted carefully 
to the window over the rod or other fixture to which it is to be 
fastened. The heavy cotton or canvas lining is then cut. Can- 
vas is better than buckram, because the latter is likely to crack 
or become limp in damp weather. The canvas form is laid on 
the table and the lining basted carefully on it, a little tighter 
from left to right than the canvas, if the valance is to go on a 
curved rod. The lining is laid on the goods on a table. If the 
fabric is figured, the pattern should be studied carefully, to be 



7-4 .1 M.wiM. or iioMi: \i\isi\(; 

sine that t he li^^urcs conic in thcri^lif )il:ici'. The ^oods sliould 
l)c cut 1 inch larj^cr all aiound than tlic hniii^. In liUstiiiK 
tlic outside to the slilTcncd liniiij^, it sliould he as much looser 
than the canvas as the lining; is lighter, in order that the valanc(? 
may lit well around the curve of the rod. 

Such a valance may he finished hy a ^;im|) or cord or other 
slijiiit finish. It may he hunj:; from a ^^-inch hoard fiustcned to 
the lop of the trim, and projecting 3 or 4 inches from the wall. 
The shaped valance is seldom rcKjuired for home-made curtain.s. 

Portieres. 

Draperies for doors are made in the same general way as 
those for windows. They arc often of heavy material and arc 
sometimes lined. The pinpose of the lining is often to furni.sh 
a contrasting hanging for the loom on the other side. When the 
rod is fastened to the door jamh as high as possihle, the run for 
the hanging may conveniently he made at the top. If a heading 
is desired, the rod should he placed lower. When portieres are 
hung on the outside of the trim, a heading may he used or 
not. 

Portieres may l)e hung h}' rings, or hy hooks. A French 
heading, with French hooks, may be used on a portiere that is 
to he hung on the trim. The French heading is made hy taking 
up three tucks or plaits which may he 74 inch in depth, or more 
if the material is heavy. The plaits should he stitched across 
23^ or 3 inches from the top. The French hook is attached at 
the bottom of the heading. The hook then fastens into the ring 
which fits the rod. 

Floor coverings 

Only modern rugs of domestic or foreign manufactm-e will 
be considered here, as the choice Oriental rugs are not within 
the compass of the average piu'se and the al)ihty to select these 
wisely is acquii'ed only ])y long stud}'^ and experience. 

The functions of either a carpet or rug are to protect the floor, 
to obviate noise, to give warmth in both fact and effect, and to 
add a decorative note to the I'oom. To protect the floor in 
nnich-used ro(jms, rugs shoukl cover the larger part of the floor. 



HOME FURNISHING 75 

If a number of small rugs are used, they should be placed where 
the wear is greatest — on lines of travel, before a fireplace, a 
lounge, a bed, or a dresser. The term carpet will be used in 
this connection to designate a fabric that covers the floor com- 
pletely; the term rug, for a fabric not completely covering the 
floor. 

Caryets. 

Carpets are not so popular at the present time as rugs; but 
with the home-maker, fashion should not enter into the con- 
sideration. A carpet with small figures or none, covering the 
entire floor, tends to make a room look larger, and to unify the 
color scheme; it contributes to the warmth and quiet of a room, 
and in an old or cold house may serve to offset a poor floor. 
A perfectly plain carpet usually called "fiUing" may be ob- 
tained in ingrain and other weaves to cover the entire floor and 
serve as a background for rugs. With a vacuum cleaner it 
should be entirely possible to use carpets and be hygienic. 

Rugs. 

Rugs serve all the purposes of a carpet and are in general 
much more -easily cared for and more adaptable decoratively. 
Even a large rug, when rolled on a pole, can be easily moved in 
and out for cleaning. For temporary homes, rugs are a wiser 
investment than carpets because they are more easily adjusted 
to different floor spaces. 

Color, as in other furnishings, is the first point to consider 
in the selection of a rug. The rug preferably should be of 
about the same value as the floor, so that it may tone with it, 
making no severe or obtrusive contrast. In the case of a floor 
that is too light but that may not be darkened, the lesser of 
two evils is to compromise by choosing a rug considerably 
darker than the floor. The floor is the base of the room, the 
foundation on which the furnitme rests, the background 
against which it is seen. Colors relatively dark contribute to 
an effect of solidity. In must be continually repeated that neu- 
tral effects serve best as backgrounds. The safest coloring per- 



76 .1 MAXIM, or HOME MAKfXn 

haps is llic one .-•imilar (m- analogous lo tlic jticvailiiin folor of the 
walls; hut. a coiiiplc'iiu'iitary ov coiil lasting coloi, if sufficiently 
iKMitralizciJ and if repeated olscwliero in the room, may be used 
with excellent elTecl. A plain iMm with a self-loned Norder is in 
p'neral a ^ood choice. 

If the ruK is to be subjected to very hard wear, a pattern will 
make the wear less evident. A ruK with an unobtrusive patti-rn, 
preferably with small p;eometric fif!;ures that "read" from every 
direction, or a very conventional nature motif with no strong 
contrasts in value, is likely to keep its place as a backf^round 
better than a rujz; with larfj;e pattern, medallions, or intricate 
ostentatious border. Such rugs assert themselves at the ex- 
pense of the other furnishings and tend to make the room seem 
crowded. Realistic flowers or animals, trees oi- houses, are out 
of place in pattern. 

The best size and proportion for rugs is determined by the 
room and its furni.shings. In the average room, a relatively 
large rug proportioned to the size and shape of the room is a 
satisfactory choice. Between two and three feet, or in a ver\'' 
large room even a wider margin, of bare floor maj' be left on 
each edge; the rug thus answers every purpose of a rug, clears 
the furniture, and is easily cared for. The size, number, and 
placing of rugs should be studied in relation to the other fur- 
nishings of the room, since they play an important part in the 
whole design. 

There is a wide variety of textures and weaves on the market. 
It is impossi]:)le to suggest with any definiteness, the weave or 
manufacture to buy. The texture or quality should above all 
be ajipropriate to the room in w'hich it is to be used; a rag rug 
may be the best choice for a bedroom or even for a living-room 
in a simply furnished country house. Heavy Wilton or Ax- 
minsters or velvets with deep pile are too suggestive of luxury 
to be used in modern simi)le homes. Since rugs are always to 
be walked upon, they should above all be durable. A reliable 
dealer who handles standard makes of rugs should be selected, 
and his judgment trusted as to the wearing qualities of his 
goods. 



HOME FURNISHING 77 

Linoleum. 

For hard and continuous wear, such as on the floors of kitch- 
ens, passages, and dining-rooms, on farms or for large families, 
linoleum makes a very satisfactory covering. A good quality 
of linoleum is about as durable as wood. Its pliability, elastic- 
ity, and quietness especially recommend it for rooms in which 
there is much walking or standing. Since it comes in wide 
lengths, a linoleum idoor has practically no seams or joints to 
catch the dirt and can, therefore, be considered a very sanitary 
material. Battleship linoleum, plain brown in color, often 
tones in acceptably with woodwork and furniture. A few other 
good plain colors are procurable. For the kitchen, a modest 
inlaid or a granite pattern is by many considered more cleanly 
in appearance. A similar choice of pattern in light colors is 
also appropriate for bathrooms. 

A good grade of linoleum is not cheap, but its lasting qualities 
repay the initial expense. Cheap grades are not in the long run 
a good investment. 

A linoleum floor should be laid by the firm from whom it is 
purchased. The inconvenience attendant on the proper laying 
of a linoleum floor must be borne patiently, because it must be 
kept in the form of loose pieces until it has adjusted itself to the 
flatness of the floor, the temperature of the room, and the space 
which it is to fill. 

Since the marks made by furniture show up badly on 
a new linoleum, the pressure of heavy pieces should be re- 
lieved by little blocks under the legs while the linoleum 
is new; but as the surface becomes harder through care 
and exposure, it will be found to stand better the necessary 
wear. 

Cork carpet. 

Cork carpet, a floor covering similar to linoleum in wearing 
qualities, but with more of a surface texture, can be ob- 
tained in a number of plain tones. Like linoleum it can be 
used pleasingly even in living-rooms as a background for 
rugs. 



78 .1 MAXIM. OF HOME MAKlSd 

Wnod-rcticcr carpet. 

A wood-vonccr carpel of inconspinioiis pattcin lai(| over an 
old floor is also a very duraltlc and satisfactory l)acknround 
for ru^;s. Japanese matting of fine \veav(>, tliounh lifi;lit in color 
can l)e made to lake I he place of a hare wood floor ospocially 
in bedrooms or rooms wiiere white or li^ht painted wood is 
used. 

Ingrain jUliinj. 

Ingrain fillinp; or other plain carpets may also he used as a 
background for ruj^s in the absence of a good w(jod floor. 

FURNITURE (Platcs VI-IX and Figs. 24-29). 

Furniture is perhaps the most distinctive of all the movable 
furnishings of the home. Well-made furniture is very durable 
and should, therefore, be selected with the care which perma- 
nence calls for. Furniture of reliable workmanship and made 
from choice material is rarely cheap, but is the best investment 
in the end. If the family })urse is limited, it is better to buy at 
the start the few essential pieces and to add to these from time 
to time. No article of furniture should be purchased unless 
a need for it exists, and then the one that will best fill that need 
should be sought for until it is found. At the time of purchase, 
each article should be judged on its intrinsic merits and its 
adaptal)ility to the need and place that it is to fill. 

The fundamental considerations in the selection of furniture 
are three: the function or use of the article selected; its construc- 
tion and design; and its relation to the room and other furnish- 
ings. 

Function. 

The usefulness of a piece of furniture is paramount to every 
other consideration. For example, a chair of whatever materials 
constructed, is made to sit in. If it does not answer this use 
coinfortably, it is utterly unworthy as a seat. In its simplest 
form a chair has a seat, legs, and l)ack, hut it is often developed 
into forms with arms, rungs, rockers, and upholstery as well. 




Fig. 24.— a group of typical side chairs of substantial and pleasing form and 
of varied finish. From these, selections might be made for dining-room 
living-room, or hall. ' 



80 



1 1/ 1 \/ 1/. or nu.ME MAKISC 




Fig. 25. — Four good tabic forms for use in dining-room or lilirary. 

Even 1 he most elementary type should afford a seat wide enough 
to at'connnodate the body comfortably, should have legs of a 
height that allow the feet of the occupant to rest easily upon the 
floor, ami a back that accords with the curve of the sjiine. These 
requirements would seem so obvious as not to need mention, 
were it not so rare to find them all combined in one chair. Since 
the adult members of a single family may vary greatly in height, 



B H 







Plate VI.— Good types of desks and sideboards. 



HOME FURNISHING 81 

size, and proportion, no exact rule as to the measurements of 
chairs can be formulated. In general, however, the seat of an 
ordinary straight chair should measure from 15 to 20 inches 
across the front and may be usually 2 or 3 inches narrower at 
the back. In height the seat may be from 15 to 20 inches from 
the floor, inclining slightly backwards. The lower the seat, the 
greater should be its depth; and conversely, the higher the 
seat, the more shallow its depth. The height of the back 
from the seat may vary from 12 to 30 inches. Arms should be 
of a height to support the arm of the occupant comfortably — 
about 10 inches usually from the seat. Rails or slats or ban- 
nisters in the chair-back should be tested with reference to the 
ribs and shoulder-blades of the user. Rungs are usually added 
for strength, but a well-made chair may be quite adequate to 
its purpose without them. 

The varying purposes for which chairs are used are another 
element in the decision. A sewing chair, a slipper chair, and 
a nursery rocker are preferably low. A short-backed chair is 
convenient for a dressing-table or for the kitchen. A chair for 
lounging may be as deep and high-backed and as luxuriously 
upholstered as the user fancies. No chair is good that is not 
comfortable in service. 

With a table also, the first thought of the buyer should be 
its use. A dining-table, a table for the library, a sewing-table, 
a table for bedroom, hall, or kitchen, each has a special service 
to render and should be chosen with that service in mind. Every 
table, however, should be stable. 

A bureau, a chest, a sideboard, or any container should be 
thought of in terms of the storage space afforded and facility of 
access to that space; doors should open and shut easily; drawers 
should run smoothly. 

Construction and design. 

The first requirements in construction are strength and du- 
rabilit}^ These are essential elements also for efficient service. 
Good furniture must be sincerely built from honest material, 
should be designed for a definite purpose, and should avoid 



82 



.1 MAMAL OF IlOMK-MAKIXa 








Fig. 26. — Types of Colonial chairs, usually developed in mahogany or cherry, 
which may ho found in good reproductions. 1, 4 and 6, Chippendale; 2 
and 3, Sheraton; 5, Hepplewhite. 



superfluous ornament and shiny varnished finishes. The con- 
si ruction of furniture should be evident; that is, the necessary 
upright and horizontal elements should not be distorted by 
curves and ornament that impair the function of the members. 
Variations in contour, such as low flowing curves, should accord 
with the main outlines. Of all the necessary pieces of furniture, 
chairs and seats are the freest in form and may deviate farthest 



HOME FURNISHING 83 

from straight-line design. Curved lines and rolling contours 
adjust themselves easily to the human form and are usually 
more comfortable than the rigid lines of straight chairs. This 
does not imply, however, that fantastic shapes are justifiable. 

Since no piece of furniture is stronger than its weakest joint, 
it is important to observe that all joints be strong and genuine 
even though hidden. The legitimate use of screws, wedges, 
and glue has brought about such sound and inconspicuous join- 
ery that there is no longer any excuse for wobbly, insecure furni- 
ture. In general, the tendency of modern furniture design is 
toward easily movable forms such as metal beds, closets instead 
of wardrobes, and various types of reed and willow furniture. 

The parts of which furniture is composed should seem reason- 
able for the function which they are to perform. The legs of 
chairs and tables should not be heavy enough for porch posts 
like those in some pieces of mission furniture, nor should they 
be frail and "ladylike" as in the case of the little gilt parlor 
chair. 

The woods most used in modern furniture are ash, oak, ma- 
hogany, walnut, and other woods finished to imitate these, 
also pine and whitewood for painted pieces. Bird's-eye maple 
and curly birch, being sport growths, should not be used as a 
structural furniture wood. Of these woods, oak is heavy, durable, 
susceptible to color modifications, easily kept in good condition, 
of a sturdy character, appropriate to everyday conditions, and 
not too expensive. Mahogany is durable, but needs much care, 
is too "dressy" in appearance for the stress of modern daily 
Hfe, and is not so adaptable, except in its browner tones, to usual 
color schemes. Contrary to the usual belief, there is no intrin- 
sic merit in the fact that a piece of modern furniture is called 
mahogany. Many of the best looking pieces are only birch 
stained red, or if made of the genuine wood are often less at- 
tractive than their birch substitutes. Only in antique pieces, 
valuable because they are good and not because they are old, 
and in modern copies or adaptations of fine design and finish, 
is the real sentiment and beauty of mahogany preserved. In 
general, oak is the most representative wood for modern furni- 



84 



.1 1/ 1 \ r I/, o/- no mi: \i \Ki\r; 




\i 




Fig. 27. — Conifortahle arm-chairs for general use. 

ture, just as black walnut was the typical wood in our mothers' 
day and mahogany in the day of our grandmothers. 

The finish of all woods .'should l)e soft and dull, rubbed, not 
varnished. A shiny polish is often used to hide blemishes in the 
wood and is of a nature pertaining more to metals and to glass 
than to wood. 





5 '1 

r 






Plate VII.- 



-Types of furniture ugly in proportion, erratic in line, over- 
decorated in finish, that should be avoided. 



HOME FURNISHING 85 

There is much good painted or enameled furniture. It lends 
itself to charming and unusual color schemes. This finish 
is especially appropriate with the light clean effects so suitable 
in bedrooms in countr}^ homes, and in rooms with painted 
trim. 

Willow, because of its elasticity, is an excellent material 
for seats, but not appropriate for tables, desks, beds and other 
furniture forms in which firmness and smoothness are essential 
qualities. Though not so durable as wood, willow is light in 
weight, has unlimited color possibilities, and fits satisfactorily 
into many varying types of furnishings. The simple designs 
are always the best. 

Upholstery. 

Well-disposed springs and padding add much to the comfort 
of a lounge or chair, and a textile covering may contribute most 
attractive notes to the color scheme of a room. Upholstered 
chairs with a well-built frame that is frankly evident, are the 
best choice. Fat-looking, dimpled, padded, buttoned, and 
fringed upholstery should be avoided. Too often it covers weak 
construction. Upholstery furnishes a good opportunity to 
amalgamate the various colors in a room, such as the contrasting 
colors of walls and hangings, or to emphasize one of these, or to 
introduce new colors that will enliven an otherwise monotonous 
room, or to distribute the color interests when there is too much 
color massed on one side of a room, as sometimes results from a 
series of door and window draperies. 

For ordinary home use, plain, striped, or figured fabrics are 
more appropriate than leather, which finds its best use in offices 
and men's lounging rooms. 

A slenderly built chair should not be upholstered in a large 
figured, strong-colored fabric. A chair or any other furni- 
ture may be excellent in design with no decoration. Any 
decoration should be an integral part of the whole design, an 
outgrowth of the construction, a refinement of the propor- 
tions, or an emphasis of an essential element by a bit of 
enrichment. 




FiQ. 28. — Three koocI forms of couches. Top, a willow davenport, comfortable, 
reasonable in price, and easily moved. Center, a type of upholstered 
davenport cxceodincly comfortable but likely to be costly. Bottom, an 
inexpensive box-couch arranRement that may be made both comfortable 
and attractive by the use of good springs, upholstery, and cushions. 



HOME FURNISHING 



87 




Fig. 29. — Typical small tables of good form and finish from which a suitable 
selection might be made for various types of living-room, bedroom, or 
porch. 



88 .1 MAMAL or IKiMi: \I\K/.\'(J 

liclnllon to ttUii r fitniishitK/s. 

To s(H'ur(> a lioiiioffciuKjiis rcsull in lioiisc lUniisliiiifi, flic fit- 
ness of each purchase should Itc thoufj;ht of in rchitioii to the loorn 
in which it is to fz;o and in fclation to the other furnishings of 
that room. As has been previously pointed out, the proportion 
of furniture has a notable elTect on the apparent jjroportion of 
the room: very iarj^e pieces of furniture seem to crowd a small 
room; very small pieces, unless ^•■'JHP<^'<'' iipp^^'ur dwarfe<i in a 
large room. 

Furniture should he selected of a material thai will harmonize; 
with tlu^ woodwork. Oak is the best choice for a room finished 
in oak or in the woods finished in a color similar to oak, as ash, 
chestnut, or even cypress. The modern market produces such 
a wide range of design in oak furniture of different finishes and 
prices as to make an appropriate choice for such a room com- 
paratively simple. 

Mahogany or painted or willow furniture afhliates better 
than does oak with painted woodwork, especially if painted in 
ivory or white or light tones. Oak and mahogany arc so at vari- 
ance in character and texture that they will not mix. Willow 
and painted furniture affording great variety in form and color 
will fit well together. 

Pictures 

Contrary to the usual belic^f, pictures are not indispensable 
in a well-furnished room. I f t he wall spaces are not too large and 
bare, if the walls are paneled or have an interesting covering, 
or if the draperies in the room are noticeably decorative in color 
or pattern, pictures may ])c superfluous. 

However, if, as often happens in rooms with plain walls, a 
problem is presented by large empty spaces, a wise use of good 
pictures presents a solution. Such pictures being steady com- 
panions should be selected for their intrinsic worth of subject, 
color, and com]30sition. Good pliotographs in brown or gray 
tones of most of the world's masterpieces may be obtained for a 
reasonable price. Some good color prints from both old and 
new masters arc also available. Even a group of magazine 




I:: ■ - : r 



,ocoooooo< 



Plate VIII. — A few excellent types of mirrors and foot-stools that are both 
serviceable and decorative. 



HOME FURNISHING 89 

prints, similar in size and harmonious in color, may be a worthy 
contribution to the decorative scheme of the room. These are 
far better than amateur efforts with paints or crayon. 

A good picture deserves a good frame. The frame serves 
to protect the picture and to enhance its appearance, but should 
never be so large, ornate or obtrusive as to assert itself at the 
expense of the picture. A frame for a mirror may appropriately 
be more decorative; the controlling thought in selecting such a 
frame is its fitness to the wall and other furnishings. The width, 
style, and color of the frame must be suited to the picture. 
Light pictures, like etchings and many water colors, look best 
framed in light, delicate moldings, with or without a mat, as 
the case may require. Photographs in gray or brown tones 
stand a heavier, darker frame toned to accord with the picture. 
Colored pictures often look well in gilt frames, but the gilt 
should be dulled and, like the frame of wood, should be toned 
to harmonize with the picture. If the frame alone does not 
sufficiently isolate the picture, a mat of harmonizing color may 
be used. Strong contrasts between frame, mat, and picture, 
such as is frequently seen in photograph or engraving surrounded 
by a white mat and black frame, should be avoided; they are too 
assertive to take a place in any color scheme. 

The size and proportion of pictures should be adjusted to 
the wall spaces; a tall picture in a vertical space, a broad pic- 
ture in a horizontal space, or a combination of these so ar- 
ranged as to form groups of pleasing proportions. Pictures rec- 
tangular in shape harmonize better with the structural masses 
than round or oval pictures. Strong contrasts of color and value 
between wall and picture tend to destroy the harmony between 
the picture and its setting. Dark pictures on a light wall, light 
pictures on a dark wall, assert themselves unduly. The general 
tone of the picture should be related to that of the wall. 

A few general points should be remembered in the hanging 
of pictures. They should be hung flat against the wall, not 
tilted out from it; they should be fastened securely to the wall 
or suspended from the pictiu'e-molding by two parallel vei'tical 
wires. The height of the pictures should be related to the 



90 .1 M.\.\ I M. "/•' iioMi-: MAKf.xa 

level of the eye, and in general cither the t()i)s or bottoms of 
the frames should he at the same distanee from the floor, unless 
a picture appears better him}; in relation to some piece of 
furniture, such as a desk oi' hookcase. Pictures are often hun^? 
too hijih. 

OtJicr ftirfiishing accessories 

\\'hile some small furnisjiinf>;s have a distinct use and may 
introduce the one decorative note needed to complete the 
scheme, safety lies in restraint. These small things .should 
be selected with as nmch care as the larger furnishings. The 
lesson of .sacrificing heirlooms, mistaken purchases, and even 
misfit gifts for the sake of the unity of the whole .scheme should 
be early learned. Constructive forms with lines that are 
slightly curved for the sake of grace while the general direction 
of support or economic outline is kept, are pleasing. Whatever 
is added by way of ornament must follow or fit, not conceal, 
this structural shape. ATasses of decoration applied without re- 
gard to the form, cheai)en the appearance and confuse 'the 
intent of the object. 

In the choosing of a clock, a clearly marked dial and a support- 
ing case of pleasing contour and form are the essential considera- 
tions. The general design will vary according as the clock is 
intended to stand on th(> mantel or the floor or to be affixed 
to the wall. 

The real function of a vase is to .serve as a container for 
flowers. The design of the vase should, therefore, anticipate 
the flower, though it may be so distinguished in color and form 
as to be by itself a decorative note in a room. The color or 
decoration on the vase should not attempt to compete with 
the flower. 

Lamps are indispensable to comfort, whether oil, gas, or 
electricity is used foi- illumination, and are one of the most 
decorative and intimate features in a furnishing scheme. Three 
elements enter into the design of lamps; the light, its shade, 
and its support. The support should both be and appear 
adequate for its use and should harmonize both in size and 



HOME FURNISHING 



91 



shape with the shade. Broad bases or heavy bowls give stability 
to the design of a lamp. Metal and pottery are eminently suit- 
able materials for lamp standards. The height of the lamp and 
the flare of the shade should be related to the space that is to 
be lighted. Tall lamps with broad flaring shades illuminate 
a large circle, while low lamps and snug shades confine the 
light to small areas (Fig. 30). 

In general, warm or yellowish tones for shades are more 
genial and more in keeping with the idea of light than are cool 
colors; they are also more becoming. Paper or parchment and 




Fig. 30. 



-Good types of lamps with substantial bases and attractive shades 
that are serviceable in use. 



fabrics are less stiff in material and more flexible in color scheme 
than are glass and metal for shades. Complex shapes and 
millinery treatment for shades should be avoided. 

The waste-basket serves a humble but important use. It 
should be so made as to stand firmly, conceal its contents, and 
be unobtrusive in color and design. 

Sofa pillows are valuable if they are useful. Plain or figured 
materials of agreeable texture, harmonizing with the general 
coloring of the room, are more decorative than those elaborately 
made. 

The much-abused tidy has in a few cases a real use in pro- 
tecting the backs of upholstered chairs from the hair; it should 
be trim in outline, of washable material, of inconspicuous color, 
and fastened securely in place. 



92 .1 MAM AL OF IloMK MAKI.\G 

Merc furiosities should he kept in a closed cahiuet or a 

UlUSl'Ulll. 

AlilUNGKMKNT OF FrKMSIII.NCS (PKiS. 'M'.V^) 

The character of eveiy looni should be obvious at tlic moment 
of eiilraiu'c. It should be iininediately evident whether the 
room ill ([uestiou is used for a family fi;atheriiiji; room, for literary 
or social pursuits, a playroom, or a workroom. All parts oi 
the loom should contributp to this simple and sustained im- 
l)ression. It is for the moment a complete ])icture in which no 
one ol)ject compels undue attention because of conspicuous 
size, color, or decoration. Unity is the whole idea. 

The contents of the room should show first of all, orderliness 
of arrangement. The distribution of the furnishings should 
be adjusted to the structural lines of the room; rugs parallel 
with the walls of the room, draperies lianging in straight folds 
in rectangular oj)enings, tables, couches, bookcases, beds, 
bureaus, and dressers following and fitting the available wall 
spaces. Pictures, single or grouped, arranged with direct 
relation to the furniture and to a continuous line of a given 
height, table I'unners and books straight witli the library table, 
square lunch cloths and doilies straight with the edges of the 
dining-table, — all are manifestations of order in arrangement. 
Diagonal lines introduced by curtains looped back, rugs askew 
on the floor, furniture placed across the corners, or at ol)lique 
angles to the wall, pictures hanging in steps, set at defiance the 
rectangular lines of the room and disturb the sense of order. 

The furnishings of the room should be so arranged as not 
to crowd all the interest on one or two walls, leaving the other 
parts of the room emptj^ and dead. Instead, the interest should 
be distributed throughout the room by a balanced arrangement. 
For example, heavy features, such as a fireplace on one side 
of the room, may be balanced by a long davenport on the oppo- 
site side, with bookcase, table, and desk occupying end po-;itions. 

The next step is to consider the arrangement of furnishings 
from the standpoint of convenience and use. The comfort of a 
room dejDends on the grouping of the pieces that are to be used 




Fig. 31. — Top, a typical square living-room showing an 
erratic but not unusual arrangement of rugs and 
furniture. Bottom, the same room arranged in a 
reasonable and orderly v/ay. 



'.II A MAM AL (IF IU»ME MAKlSd 

tojictluT. Thus a jiciuTous living-room may provich; a hoartli 
criitrr, a rcadiuf? (■ciilcr, a music center, and a sowing center if 
the furnishings are properly grouped; or, in the case of a bod- 
room, a bed, ni^ht table, and lamj) mi^ht, form r)ne j^roup, with 
dresser, chair, and closet in another. 

The arran{i;ement of the furnishings depends v(;ry Kroatly 
on the location of windows and doors. The j^oofl lifj;ht nece.s.sary 
for readinfi, writing, or sewing puts a premium on the po.sitions 
near the wintlows, for, while theoretically it is possible to sec 
in all parts of a comfortably lighted room, the direct light from 
a window is the l)est for all kinds of close work. The furniture 
grouping must, therefore, adjust itself to this recjuirement. 
Desks arranged with a good light from the left side, the prin- 
cipal reading seats within comfortable distance from the win- 
dows, and adequate lamps or lighting fixtures provided where 
most needed, insure satisfaction in this respect. 

Care should also be taken to arrange furniture groups away 
from drafts and paths of travel. Bookcases, cabinets, and the 
like, may occupy odd bits of wall in locations where it is not 
comfortable to sit. 

Just as the form of a chair may ha less rectangular than 
other pieces of furniture, so its position in the furnishing scheme 
is more free. The very use of chairs implies that they cannot 
in general occupy fixed positions, with the exception perhaps 
of an occasional upholstered or straight-backed chair. This 
flexibility of chair arrangements introduces enough variety to 
keep the room from looking stiff. Nothing in the room is so 
insignificant as to escape the need of thoughtful placing; vases, 
clocks, lamps, and pictures, all are elements in the scheme. 

Arrangement, however, is as much concernoti with the elimi- 
nation of superfluous features as with the proper disposal of 
the essentials. Souvenirs, trinkets, and family photographs, no 
matter what their personal significance, cheapen the effect 
and lessen the dignity of rooms intended for general use. 
A room is a good design only when nothing cAn l)e added 
and nothing can be taken away without marring its com- 
pleteness. 



HOME FURNISHING 95 



CHARACTER OF ROOMS EXPRESSED BY FURNISHINGS 

The hall, living-room, dining-room, and library, if there is one, 
represent one group of interests, and may be considered to form 
the social, recreative, or living area of the house. The general 
character of these rooms should be spacious and decorative in 
effect. Though each unit of this group should have its own dis- 
tinctive character, these living-rooms, on account of their inter- 
relation and common use, should show some harmony in color 
and treatment. 

The hall is the threshold of the house. It serves as an intro- 
duction. This first impression should be one of welcome and 
dignity and, above all, of order. Good light, genial colors on 
the walls and floor, a sense of free space for the passage of per- 
sons, an ample provision for the necessary wraps and umbrellas 
in a tidy and concealed form, are the essential characteristics 
of a well-considered hall, regardless of its size. If a regular 
coat closet is not provided in the hall, a generous rod with coat 
hangers arranged in an angle behind curtain or screen is far 
neater and more satisfactory than some form of mongrel hat 
rack exposed to view. 

The movable furnishings necessary to equip the hall of a 
dwelling for its use are very few, a rug on the floor, carpet on the 
stairs, a chair or seat, a well-lighted mirror, a clock perhaps, 
and a small stand with drawers for gloves, time-tables, pad and 
pencil, and other incidentals. Decorative touches may be intro- 
duced by a figured wall paper, a potted plant, or a spray of 
flowers. 

The character of the modern living-room should unite the 
dignity of the old-fashioned parlor and the genuine homely 
qualities of the old-time sitting-room. The large living-room 
of the modern house is an attempt to amalgamate into a single 
space the interests formerly represented by separate rooms, 
such as reception-room, music-room, parlor, sitting-room, and 
hbrary. Its character should accordingly represent dignity, 
hospitality, comfort, and recreation. This room must be gen- 
eral not personal, in its decoration and furnishing. Walls and 






Fig. 32. — Top, a room showiriK the effect in furni.sliinK of one large rug, a 
fireplace in the center of one long inside wall, and the other furnish- 
ings W(>11 related to these. Bottom, a room showing a good arrange- 
ment of two rugs; a fireplace in the short inside wall, and the furniture 
well arranged in occupational centers. 








^ 






r; 



Plate IX. — Simple and serviceable types of bedroom furniture that may be 
developed in different woods suitable for rooms with varying finish.. 



HOME FURNISHING 97 

rugs sufficiently neutral in color to form a good background, 
harmonious furnishings adjusted to the space and suitably- 
arranged for the interests to be accommodated, and a method 
of comfortable lighting both by day and by night are the essen- 
tial considerations. The position of such structural pieces as 
the fireplace and the location of the windows give the cue to the 
general arrangement for the room. 

The selection of the furnishings in each case will depend on 
whether the main interests of the household are youthful or 
mature, studious or musical, industrial or social. 

One or two large rugs are more appropriate for the living- 
room than a number of small ones. Small rugs in a living- 
room are an aggravation, because of the tendency to slip about, 
turn up at the corners, and give a scrappy appearance to a floor. 

In general, a typical living-room for general family use should 
include a fireplace, some form of lounge, bookshelves, a generous 
table with lamp, a place to write, and plenty of comfortable 
chairs. A piano or victrola, a sewing-table, small or folding 
tables that can be. moved around to serve a cup of tea or for 
games and the like, may also be needed. Added to these are a 
number of small furnishings that should be thoughtfully selected 
to complete the comfort of the occupants as the room is used, 
Footstools or hassocks, a dictionary-stand, lamps and candle- 
sticks, a waste-basket, a neat wood-box or basket, a few pillows, 
a vase or two for flowers, a clock, are all worthy adjuncts to the 
family room. A place should also be provided for the ciuick dis- 
posal of transient paraphernalia, such as father's newspaper, 
mother's mending, and the children's toys. 

The artificial lighting of the room should be adjusted to the 
spaces that are used at night. A general diffusion of light over 
the whole space can be provided most simply by some central 
form of ceiling light. In addition to this, lamps will be needed 
for reading or close work. The soft light of candles or the open 
fire are sufficient when the room is used only for conversation. 

The character of a dining-room should above all be cheerful. 
Eastern windows admitting the morning sun, light colors on 
the walls, plants or flowers, are a real aid to good digestion. 



08 



A MAMAL OF lloMEMAKlSd 



Haii- 




HALL 



Fig. 33. — Top, an effective and Icgical arrangement 
of furniture in a square dininK-rooni. Bottom, 
a well-planned bedroom .showiiiK a -serviecahle 
arrangement of dressing and sleeping equipment, 
with plenty of free space for passage. 



HOME FURNISHING 99 

In contrast to the living-room, the dining-room has but one 
function and therefore but one center of interest. The dec- 
oration and furnishing of this room should focus on the idea 
of the table in use. A dining-table capable of enlargement, 
a rug perhaps, chairs, a serving-table, and a place to keep the 
dishes, against an interestingly papered or paneled back- 
ground, constitute the real requirements of the dining-room. 
Anything provided in addition to this is purely by way of decora- 
tion which implies that the added features must enhance the 
general appearance. Clean linen — white, cream, or gray — ■ 
simple forms of knives, forks, and spoons, china with refined 
outlines and restrained decorations, furnish a dining-room with 
more distinction than an abundance of ornate furnishing. 

Unlike the living area, the rooms of the sleeping area stand 
each one by itself, a complete unit, both in furnishing and in 
decoration. A sleeping-room should above all be personal in 
its use, light, airy, and intimate in character. Sufficient window 
space, light colored walls and woodwork, fresh looking curtains, 
furniture stained or painted to accord with these, carry out this 
idea. A clean comfortable bed, conveniences for dressing and 
storage of clothes provided by dressing-table, bureau, chiffonier 
and closet, a well-lighted mirror, a comfortable chair or two, 
a bedside table, and rugs in the open spaces are the essentials. 
Facilities for writing or sewing may also be needed. Whatever 
accessories are introduced are of a personal nature. 

Bed and dressing arrangements should be located with special 
reference to good lighting both by day and by night. The bed 
should be so placed as not to face the light, while the mirror 
should be so placed that the person dressing is in full light. 
Side lights are a particularly appropriate type for bedroom use. 

The character, equipment, and use of the kitchen are discussed 
in connection with its planning on pages 100 to 120. 



rilAPTET: HI 

PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN* 

By Helen Binkerd Young 

Any honic-niakcr should he ahlc to |)laii a kitclioii iiitclli- 
jionlly. 'I'liis means a kilchcn lliat nieasuros up to somo stand- 
aid tests on general (;ssential points. The details are of small 
moment when compared to such fundamental considerations 
as the size of the kitchen, the amount of light and air, and the 
general organization of the work. Too much or too little floor 
space, too many doors, too few windows, and too little wall 
space are basic matters that may bi-eak up the entire conven- 
ience of the place, no matter how perfect the details of equip- 
ment may be. Naturally, it is too late to begin to plan a kitchen 
after it is built, for the structural conditions are then fi.xed 
and the possibilities of arrangement are accordingly limited. 
This is not meant to discourage the remodeling of old kitchens, 
Init merely to emphasize the importance of planning the kitchen 
correctly at the start. 

USE OF THE KITCHEN 

Properly speaking, the kitchen is a scrupulously clean room 
intended for operations connected with food materials, and for 
this purpose only. It is not the province of the kitchen to pro- 
\ ide space for eating, for washing and ironing clothes fji lava- 
tory purposes, for removing boots, wraps, and overaliS, or for 
passageway from the back of the house to the front. For the 
sake of cleanliness and speed, such activities should i)e provided 
for elsewhere. It is poor logic and poor economy to plan for 
such features as laundry tubs and cleaning closets in the kitchen, 
for they are too unsanitarj^ ami too umclattnl to food work to 

*Coriiol! Ro;uling-C)Mr-c> for llio Farm Home, Bull. lOS. 
100 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 



101 



have a place there. Moreover, in order to include the laundry 
work, the kitchen must be made larger than it would otherwise 
need to be. A separate room for laundry purposes should be 
provided, either in the basement or, as in the case of the farm- 
house, on the same floor as the kitchen and adjacent to it. 




DINING 



Fig. 34. — A large kitchen, 14 by 18 feet, so rear- 
ranged that food and laundry work are sepa- 
rately grouped, while the stove is common to 
both. 



This room can also be used for the storage of cleaning mater- 
ials and as a direct entrance into the main part of the house, 
thereby eliminating constant passage through the kitchen. 
Therefore, by taking out of the kitchen proper all operations 
foreign to foods, a smaller and more convenient room may 
be planned. 

Even in altering an old house, this idea of planning the kitchen 
proper for food work only, should be the guiding thought. Thus, 
a large kitchen in which the family washing has been done 



102 .1 .1/ 1 \ / .1/. or lit I Ml-: MM<i\(; 

slioiiM lie iciikkIcIciI ill >iic!i :i way llial all ruiid uoik is grouped 
a( one {-wd ami lautidiy wcrk and passajii- at t lie ot her cud, with 
the slovi' as the coiiiiiioii jjiccc ol" ('(luipiiii'iit Itct wccii. If tlic 
room is larjiic ciiou^h for it, :i lliiii paitiiiou wall nia>' he used 
to compU'tc the division. This makes ji more cleanly and more 
eeonomieal arranp;ement lluin does tlie single lurp;e room wifh 
the two kinds of work crossing each other. Such a kitchen al- 
tera! ion is sliown in l-'i^:. 3 [. 

Tlie same idea of grouping the food woik in an alcove and 
using tlie remainck'r of the space for another purpose can be 
apphed to a combination kitchen and (Hning-room, such as is 
shown in Fig. 14. The compact kitchen end coukl be made Hght 
and washal)le in character, and the chning-i-oom end more like a 
sitting-room, with passage through the room halfway between, 
thus disturbing the comfort of neither part. 

It is evident from the foregoing explanation that the intelligent 
))laiining of a kitchen involves a number of side issues, which, 
in the case of the farmhouse, unite to make of it a very complex 
problem. If the kitchen is to become a compact, businesslike 
compartment for one use only, the entire working arrangements 
of the house must be thoroughly studied in order to make sure 
that there is a definite place allotted to every need (Fig. 37). 

EXPOSURE 

The location of the kitchen will of couise depend on the re- 
mainder of the house plan and on the location of the other rooms. 
Theoretically, the best exposure and location for a kitchen is 
toward the north, the northeast, or the northwest, with at 
least two outer walls for light and air. This implies either a 
corner location or a separate wing. South, southeast, and south- 
west are less desirable exposures for a kitchen, because they are 
likel}^ to be hot and glaring and are usually hard to ventilate. 
Furthermore, southern exposures are usually at a premium for 
the more important living-rooms. If the arrangement is such 
that the kitchen can have but a single exposure, it can still be 
made a very comfoi-tabl(> one as regards light, air, and coolness, 
if it faces north and is provided with plenty of windows; whereas, 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 103 

a kitchen having but one outside wall, and that facing directly 
south, is in the very worst situation from every viewpoint. 

SIZE 

The size of the kitchen is determined chiefly b}^ the number 
of workers and by the kind of fuel to be used for cooking. In 
general it should always be large enough to accommodate 
two workers in emergency, and yet at the same time as small 
as convenience will allow. 

A kitchen in which coal is to be used for fuel is normally 
larger than one in which gas is to be used, because of the larger 
size of the range, the need for a convenient supply of fuel, and 
the fact that for reasons of comfort the other pieces of furniture 
cannot be placed too near the stove. Years of experience in 
planning, equipping, and using kitchens under conservational 
methods, show that a gas-fuel kitchen with a pass pantry need 
not exceed 150 square feet of floor space, and that a coal-fuel 
kitchen, together with a pass and food pantry, ordinarily need 
not exceed an area of 200 square feet of floor space. This area 
may be arranged in such shapes as 9 by 12 feet, 10 by 12 feet, 
10 by 13 or 14 feet, 11 by 11 feet, 11 by 12 or 13 feet, or 12 by 12 
feet, for the kitchen proper, and 5 by 7, 8, 9, or 10 feet, or 6 
by 6, 7, or 8 feet, for the pantry, according as these measure- 
ments best fit into the plan for the remainder of the house. In 
general, approximately square shapes for kitchens and pantries 
are more convenient than are long, narrow ones. Eight feet 
should be the minimum width for a kitchen. 

Of course the areas given are merely guides to help determine 
the probable amount of space needed for kitchen developments 
and to serve as a sort of check on wasteful or crowded planning. 
It is very easy to plan a kitchen that is too large; it is also pos- 
sible to plan a kitchen that is too small, where freedom of motion 
is cramped and where one tires of standing always in one place 
or position. 

DOORS 

After the size and the location of the kitchen have been de- 
termined, the placing of the openings is the next step to be con- 



104 .1 MAX I'M. or //O.UA .1/.1A7.\V; 

sidcrctl. 'I'lic subject of dooi-s especially should he jiiven (Ik; 
most deliberate :it tent ion, t'oi- the iiiconveiiieiice of many kitch- 
ens can l>e liai*e(| haik to the presence of too many or wrongly 
j)iace(l doors. 

It is evident that a kitchen should {lave as few doors as pos- 
sible in order to avoid breaking up the wall space and to avoid 
passage through the kitchen to difTerent parts of the house. 
Ordinaiily. five or six doors an; needed in connection with the 
kitchen work: an outside door, a pantr}' door, a cellar door, a 
door to the dining-room, and perhaps one leading to a rear stair- 
wa}-" or hall. Fortunately, all these doors need not be located 
in the kitchen proper. DifTerent combinations can be arranged 
where!)}' one door can be made to serve two oi" three purposes. 
Thus, the cellar or the rear-stair door might open from a pantry 
or from an outside entry, which might also contain the outside 
door. Two or three doors of passage are all that are needed in 
a well-planned kitchen. These should, as nearly as possible, be 
arranged at one side, corner, or end, thus leaving a continuous 
wall space in an alcove form for the arrangement of equipment. 

WINDOWS 

The function of a window is essentially twofold — to admit 
light and air. Naturally that arrangement of windows will be 
most reasonable which provides for the best diffusion of light 
and the best ventilation with the least amount of glass space. 
For, while it is poor economy to have too few windows, it is also 
poor economy to have too many. 

It has been found that for effective results, a sort of flexible 
relation exists between the amount of window space to l)e used 
and the size of the room to be lighted. Accordingly, the total 
window area for a kitchen should in general l)e about 25 per 
cent of the floor area. For example, a kitchen 11 by 11 feet, 
having 121 square feet of floor area, should be provided with 
about 30 square feet of window space, arranged on the two 
outer walls. This space may be divided into two windows 3 by 
5 feet each, or three windows 2J^ by 4 feet each, or three 
windows 2 by 43^^ feet each, as the case may require. The 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 105 

necessary window space for any given kitchen may thus be 
approximated. 

Ordinarily, kitchen windows should be located as far apart as 
possible. In the case of a corner exposure, they should be placed 
near the partition walls rather than near the corner of the house. 
This arrangement insures a strong diagonal sweep of air and 
an even distribution of light. The tops of the windows should 
be not more than a foot from the ceiling, so that the lising heat 
and odors can easily escape. Broad, short windows, built high 
from the floor, are an excellent type for kitchen use. The dis- 
tance from the floor to the sill should be from three to four feet, 
in order to allow for table space beneath the windows. While 
not so picturesque as casements, double-hung windows are 
usually the easier type to operate in a kitchen. 

ARRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT 

Having planned the kitchen that is structurally suited to its 
use, further convenience depends on the selection and arrange- 
ment of the furniture, or equipment. In this, as in the case of 
any industry, the aim should be to do the most work in the 
least time without friction and with the fewest workers. 

The equipment should line the walls, leaving a free central 
space for working. Theoretically, every change in working 
level, w^hether of floor or table, and every gap between two 
pieces of equipment, cause loss of efficiency; that is to say, the 
more continuous the arrangement of equipment, the more con- 
venient will be the work. Having dispensed with all unneces- 
sary doors and deliberately preserved one or two continuous 
wall spaces, the disposition of the equipment becomes an easy 
matter. Indeed, it would be difficult to make a really incon- 
venient work-place of a compact, well-lighted kitchen of Hmited 
size, having few doors and generous wall spaces, such as has 
been previously described. But in order to reach a standard 
of maximum convenience, the work and the equipment should 
be organized so that all things pertaining to a given operation 
are grouped together. 

The table, the stove, and the sink represent the three essen- 



KKi 



.1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISd 



tial operations canicd on in a kilclicn; (he preparation f)f the 
food, the cooking of tlie food, and the elcaninj^-uf) [jroccss that 
lollows. This ('(|uii)nK'nt and this work form the nucleus of 
three operation centers: (1) the food center, (2) \\\v. lieat center, 
and {'M the water centei'. This organization is the basis of 
convenient arrangement for every home kitchen, lar^e or small, 
whether it belonj^s to apartment, suburban home, or farmhouse. 

1. Tho fond ronton roquiros the following oquipmont: 

a. Tal)lo space, from 8 to 12 square feet exclusive of sink-boards 

b. Storage space 



(l) For cold foods. 



Ico-l)ox 
Dmnh-waiter 
Food pantry 
(Any or all of these) 



Drawers and shelves 

(In form of closet or cabinet) 



b. Storage space. 



(2) For dry supplies and 
utensils needed in food 
preparation 

The heat center requires the following equipment: 
a. Stove or range, from 2 l)y ;i feet to 2^ l>y 5 feet 

Fuel box or bin, if coal or wood is to be used 
Pan closet for utensils 
Water boiler 

The water center requires the following equipment: 

a. Sink, 2 by ;3 foot, more or less 

b. Drain-board, <S square feet or more — part to riglit and part 

to left of sink 

I Shelves and drawers 
(In form of china closet and pan 
closet) 



The food center should, if possible, be located on an outer 
wall, with the sink and range centers on inside walls and with 
lijiht coming from the side. Ordinarily, the position of the 
dining-room and the location of the main chimneys of the house 
determine the general location of the sink and the range, re- 
spectively. The sink should be near or next the dining-room 
wall, so that meal service involves a short path of travel and 
l)ut one handling of dishes. 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 107 

If possible, the food and water centers should be combined 
into one arrangement, so that all the table space, such as the 
table top, the cabinet shelf, and the drain-board, forms a con- 
tinuous work shelf on the same level. 

Ordinarily the stove or the range is the one piece of equip- 
ment that should be set somewhat apart. It may even be 
conveniently placed in a detached position on a separate wall 
space, partly because the other work is more comfortable if 
the stove is not too near, and partly ' because the design of 
stoves is such that two or three sides must be accessible to the 
worker. 

The question is often asked whether movable or built-in 
equipment is preferable. While the use of either sort can be 
made entirely convenient in arrangement, there is much to 
be said in favor of built-in equipment as far as cleanliness and 
appearance are concerned. In the latter case, there are no 
cracks behind or under the furniture, and, consequently, the 
moving of heavy articles is unnecessary in. cleaning. A table, 
a stove, and a cabinet, all separate and standing on legs or 
casters, make the problem of a clean floor more difficult than 
if the cabinet and the range were set directly on the floor and 
the table space was supplied by drain-boards or a shelf. Also, 
the appearance is simpler and more restful with the built-in 
pieces. However, a satisfactory kitchen can be made by the use 
of separate pieces. 

Table space. . 

Extensive table space may be gained by providing generous 
drain-boards to right and left of the sink, continuous with the 
cabinet shelf. A movable table of the same height, mounted on 
casters or, preferably, on small wheels, will prove a great step- 
saver and will simplify the serving of meals. A double-deck 
wheel tray would serve this purpose even better since it is 
lighter to push about. All floors on a level and all table tops 
on a level save many an accident in the kitchen. A work table 
covered with zinc will give satisfaction for it is nonabsorbent 
and is easily cleaned. 



lOS A MAMAL 01' llUME MAKIST, 

RuiKJC. 

The newer piiMeiiis of i-eli;il)le rallies are simpler and less 
ornate than those of the older stoves and reciuire less care. 

If a new Uitehen is to he l)nilt, a separate ventilating flue may 
he provided in addition to the smoke flue. This ventilating 
Ihie, i)rovided with a rej^ister inlet al)out four feet ahove the 
stove toji, will relieve the kilehen of odors and of excessive 
heat, especially if a projectinj:; metal hood is fastened over the 
ranfie for collecting the risinji; air. 

'I'he stove or ran^e recjuires more caie and makes more dirt 
than any other feature in the kitchen. Fuel must he hrouf^ht in 
and ashes must he removed. Whatever can he done to simplify 
the incoming and the outgoins of fuel will make for cleanliness 
and for economy of lahor. A generous temporaiy supply may 
he stored either in a separate fuel compartment next to the 
kitchen, or in a fuel hox fitted with a douhle-hinged cover and 
huilt into the wall in such a way that it may he filled from 
without and emptied from within. The actual arrangement in 
any case will depend on whether wood or coal is hurned and 
whether the main suppl}^ may he stored in or near the house. 

Ashes may he emptied directly into an air-tight metal can in 
the cellar. This is an easier and cleaner method than removing 
them by hand. A can of a size that one man can handle easily 
will i^rohahly not need to he emptied oftener than once a week. 
Many of the newer ranges are already equipped for this method 
of ash-disposal, hut any stove may he so arranged if there is a 
caieful workman at hand. The ash pan should first i)e removed 
fi-om the stove and a round hole cut through the bottom of the 
ash compartment and through the floor below; a stovepipe is 
then passed through these holes and is flanged over the bottom 
of the ash pit of the stove. Two precautions must be observed 
in this piece of work: first, the stovepipe which is to lead the 
ashes into the cellar can must be provided with a damper 
near the stove, in order to prevent an upward draught of air 
from burning out the fire; second, a free air space of at least two 
inches must be allowed all around the pipe where it passes 
through the floor, consequently the floor hole must be cut at 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 109 

least four inches larger than the pipe. This open space may be 
filled with concrete or covered with an ordinary metal collar. 
Measures should also be taken to make the ash can perfectly 
safe. A container of hot ashes in a place not frequently visited, 
such as the cellar, may prove a source of danger unless it is 
surrounded by a wire cage or in some way protected so that rub- 
bish, paper, kindling, or other combustible material can never 
be thrown directly against it. 

Sink and drain-hoards. 

A one-piece enameled iron sink, with high back, will prove 
a satisfactory appliance. This sink should be large enough 
to hold a dishpan conveniently. Dishwashing will be more 
quickly accomplished with the double drain-board before 
mentioned than if a single drain-board is used. Enameled 
iron drain-boards are not advisable. They are more showy 
than serviceable, for, besides being noisy, they are too small 
to be useful and too hard to be safe for dishes. Suitable 
drain-boards may be made of ash or of maple, or thej^ may 
be made of some other wood and covered with zinc. For 
the purpose of shedding water, wooden drain-boards should be 
grooved and zinc-covered boards should be provided with a 
curbed or raised edge. Furthermore, a drain-board should 
slope slightly toward the sink, on the rim of which it rests. 
The resulting board level is about 1 inch above the sink level. 

The construction of sink-boards requires the most careful 
workmanship. The use of wood for draining purposes subjects 
it to the severe test of being continually wet on one side only. 
In order to avoid warping and splitting, therefore, a sink-board 
should be thick, heavy, and well cleated on the underside. A 
surface finish that will render the boards water-resisting should 
be applied before they are put into use. Usually sink-boards 
are varnished, but this finish water-marks, wears off, and on the 
whole is less serviceable than a surface finished with wood filler, 
followed with linseed oil. 

The sink should be supported from the wall, rather than on 
legs, and should be piped, if possible, through a partition wall 



11(1 .1 .U.l.Vr.W. or IKlME MAKISC 

nillicr tliiiij lliroiiuli tlic lioor. A sink should he set at a height 
convouiciit for the worker — 'M inches from tho floor is a good 
average hcitzihf . The usual hcij^ht of ^jO inches to the loj) of the 
rim is too low for most |)ersons. 

DISCISSION OK I'LANS (FlCiS. 35-:38) 

Tlic |il;iii of a farmhouse kitchen that has been developed in 
accoidaiice with the principles of kitchen i)larminy; previous!}'- 
tiescribed is shown in I'i^. 35. It will be found to work out satis- 
factorily on each of the essential matters of use, location, size, 
number and location of doors, number and location of windows, 
and organization of work. In this kitchen, coal or wood is 
used for fuel, and the eciuipment is movable. 

In Fig. 30 is shown the arrangement of a kitchen in a suburban 
house. In this case, gas is used for fuel, and the equipment 
is built in. This arrangement also will be found to stand the 
test on the points essential to gootl i)lanning. 

The working area of a farmhouse is represented in Fig. 37, in 
which the principles of kitchen planning are clearly expressed. 
The relation of the kitchen to the dining-room, the porch, 
the pantry, and the washroom, should first be noted, after which 
size, location, openings, and general ecjuipment ma\' be studied. 
This kitchen has a corner location on the plan, with the food 
pantry and one wall exposed in a northerly direction. The 
kitchen proper represents an area of 130 square feet and the 
pantry an area of 45 square feet. The num!)er of doors has l)een 
reduced to two, which are placed adjacent so that travel from 
the porch occurs around a corner and not across the working 
center. The most direct passage from the barns lies through 
the washroom, as should be the case. The windows of the kit- 
chen, which are placed high, light the working area sufficiently 
and provide good ventilation. ]Moreover, if it is needed, a com- 
plete sweep of air may be obtained from end to end by opening 
the two pantry doors, over either of which a transom may be 
built. Both these doors arc glazed, in order to afford light and 
view. A fuel compartment is conveniently located for either 
kitchen or washroom. Aii eating porch, looking toward the 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 



111 



garden and the sunset, occupies the corner angle between the 
kitchen and the dining-room. The kitchen and the porch con- 
nect with a Dutch door, so that outdoor meals are easily served. 
Extra food and extra fuel are stored in the cellar, whence they 
are delivered by a dumb-waiter, or lift. 




Fig. 35. — A farmhouse kitchen that demonstrates 
the principles of sound planning. 



The purpose of a washroom is to save the other parts of the 
house. Here all dirty and occasional forms of work may be done. 
The room is equipped for the family washing and ironing, and 
stores such general cleaning apparatus as brooms, pails, and 
vacuum cleaner. Here, also, men coming from the barn may 
remove muddy boots and overalls, and may clean up before 
going to the table. Such feeding pails for stock as are brought 
to the house should be deposited here, not taken into the kitchen. 



112 



.1 .l/.l A ( AL OF IKiMi: M.\KI\(; 



('()ii>iiUTinn the iialuru uf lliis room and its ijiuiiy uses, it shouM 
he made ;is larj!;o lis can lu' alTordod, and should be provided, 
if possible, uilh a ceineiit floor aud a painted wall so that splash- 
ing will not injure it. The room shown in I'iji. M is in reality 




Fig. 36. — A kitchen for a suburban houso, dcvelopod in accord- 
ance with the princi[)Ie.s of good arraiigenieiit. 

the old washhou.sc and woodshed, fitted more completely than 
formerly, and is an important part of the plan. 

P.\NTRIES AND CLOSETS 

No part of the kitchen equipment has been so evaded in 
planning as has accurate and .systematic storage space. The 
habit has been acquired of using every corner and tuck-away 
place for a closet, the idea being that the more clo.scts, the greater 
would be the convenience. Too much or inaccessible storage 
space invites slack housekeeping and is, theivfore, more de- 
structive to the general scheme than is too little closet room. 



Plate XI. — (Above) Shelves of suitable size for the materials to be stored. 
(Below) Utensils in which foods may be both cooked and served — 
casseroles and meat plank. 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 



113 



Limited storage space compels one to organize, to eliminate, 
and to arrange compactly, the general result thereby favoring 
conservation. Only such storage space should be planned as 




LIVING ROOn 



Fig. 37. — Plan in which principles of kitchen arrangement are clearly expressed. 



is really needed to complete and assist the operation of the 
kitchen. 

There are three general types of storage space that may be 
used in connection with the kitchen arrangements: (1) the 
pantry, (2) the cupboard filled with shelves, and (3) the cabinet, 
or dresser. Of these three, the pantry is by nature the most 
capacious, the cupboard next, and the cabinet least. An analy- 
sis of these three forms should enable one to plan intelligently 
the storage space for an individual kitchen. 

The pantry may be defined as an enlarged closet through 



114 



A MAMAL (JF IKJMK MAKIXO 



which one passes or into which one steps instead of merely 
reacliiiij!;. Its purpose is primarily to furnish more generous 
storage space than is provided hy the onhnary cuplxjard. Tlicrc 
are in general two types of pantries, the (ood pantry and the 
pass pantry. The food pantry is intended primaiily for the 
storage of food sujiplies that nmst be kept cooler than the tem- 



MTTIMC 



mmo 

\DOt\ 



'M4Mm'—^^^, 







Fig. 3S. — A complete and convenient kitchen for any house. 



perature of the kitchen. The pass or butler's pantry is used for 
the storing of china and for the serving of meals. Often these 
two pantries can be combined into one without breaking up the 
organization of the work. 

Whether a food pantry, or a pass pantry, or both, or a com- 
bination of the two shall be planned for any given house, de- 
pends on the conditions of that special case. In general, a food 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 



115 




Fig. 39. — The pass pantry or 
serving-pantry, shown on 
plan in Fig. 38. 



pantry is always needed when coal is used for cooking, because 
the temperature of the kitchen then becomes so warm that 
certain foods will not keep; whereas, when gas is used, the 
temperature is likely to be fairly 
cool and even, which often allows 
for the food pantry to be replaced 
by an ice-box, a dumb-waiter, or 
both, placed directly in the kitchen. 
If the ventilation of the room is 
good, such an arrangement will re- 
quire very little more ice a year 
than the amount needed if the re- 
frigerator were placed in a separate 
entry or pantry or on an outer 
porch. 

If the family is large, however, 
or the house located at a distance from the markets, a food 
pantry is almost necessary to store sufficient supplies. Often 
one tier of shelves in the food pantry is reserved for utensils, 
which makes a separate cupboard unnecessary. Owing to the 
nature of its use, the food pantry should preferably be located 
on a northerly outside wall and should be provided with a 
window. 

The pass pantry (Fig. 39) is for several reasons an almost 
invaluable adjunct to the kitchen. Not only does it provide 
closet space for china and aid the smooth serving of meals, but 
it also shuts off the noise and the odors of the kitchen from the 
remainder of the house. Owing to the nature of its use, the 
pass pantr}' should be located on the partition wall between 
the dining-room and the kitchen. It is of course desirable, 
but not really necessary, to arrange the pass pantry so that it 
touches the outer wall and is provided with a window. Where 
this is impossible, an inside serving-pantry painted white and 
lighted through a glass panel in the door leading to the 
kitchen, will be found to be light and satisfactory (Figs. 35 
and 36). 

Sometimes in place of, or in addition to, the pass pantry, a 



no .1 MAM AL OF IK IMF MAKlXd 

cliiiKi closet opening!; Ixtlli \v;iys is hiiill into llic wall hctwoen 
llu- (iininji-rooii) and llic kilclicii (Fig. :i7). AIiIioukIi con- 
venient, (his destroys the quiet ing efTeet of the pass pantry, 
as it provides direct eonnnunication between the ( lining- room 
and the kitchen, and danfier of noise and odors. A simple and 
dii-ect arranfreinent for meal service is shown in Fi^s. 'A') and 'M't, 
wliere the pass pantry is used and tliere is a slide through to 
the sink drain-hoard. In neither ca.sc are the dishes carried 
aeross the kitchen; they are delivered, washed, and returned 
within the shortest pos.sihlc line of service. 

Cdass china closets and plate rails should he used sparingly 
in the design of the dining-room. The cupboard — a clo.set 
filled with shelves — is a valuable place of storage for pans, 
china, or supplies. If intelligently shelved, it can be made 
almost as capacious as a small pantry. 

The arrangement of shelving is perhaps the most important 
feature in the planning of storage space. For the best results, 
shelves should be designed only wide enough to hold com- 
fortably one row of supplies, of whatever kind considered. 
An arrangement of narrow shelves spaced close together will 
prove to be more capacious, accessible, and easy to clean than 
wide shelves spaced far apart. From every standpoint, deep 
shelves are a great mistake, because one must then arrange 
for two or three rows of materials in order to use the space. 
It will be found that the area of comfortable reach is between 
one and six feet from the floor, leaving about five feet of quickly 
available space. For the sake of efficiency, this space should 
be as compactly shelved as is feasible for the use intended. A 
cupboard provided with one or two broad shelves l)elow and a 
series of narrower shelves above, will hold a large numi)er of 
articles, both effectively and accessibly displayed. A cupboard 
with doors for pans, china, or supplies is ample if made from 
10 to 15 inches deep; a series of open shelves, if made from 8 
to 10 inches deep. Shelves as narrow as (i inches are good for 
single rows of dry supplies. From 7 to 10 inches bet ween shelves 
is a safe average distance for spacing; but in ortler to make 
the most out of a given space, it is best to think out carefully 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 117 

the materials that are to be stored, and to space the shelves 
accordingly. 

The kitchen cabinet, or dresser, brings a new element into 
the storage arrangement. It introduces a work shelf at table 
height, thereby dividing the storage into an upper and a lower 
part. The deep under part may be arranged for either closet 
or drawer space; the upper part may be arranged as a shallow 
cupboard for supplies. The most valuable form of storage for 
the lower section of a cabinet is an arrangement of drawers, 
for these pull out and expose their contents from the top so 
that one need not stoop to reach them. From four to six well- 
planned drawers will be adequate for the ordinary kitchen: a 
broad, shallow drawer subdivided for small utensils, such as 
knives, forks, spoons, egg-beaters, and the like; a deeper 
drawer for kitchen linen, such as towels, clean cloths and 
aprons; and two or three deep, narrow drawers, or bins, 
for storing flour, sugars, and other dry supplies of a bulky 
nature. 

Appropriate drawer space for the pass pantry is about as 
follows: a broad, shallow drawer with subdivisions for the 
different kinds of table silver; one, two, or three broad, shallow 
drawers for table linen; and a deep drawer for miscellaneous 
needs, containing perhaps a compartment for string, one for 
wrapping paper, and so on. 

It should be realized from the foregoing discussion that the 
cabinet, or dresser, is an appropriate form of storage only when 
table space is needed also; that is, the emphasis is here placed 
on the work shelf rather than on the storage capacity. To equip 
a pantry, whose function is to furnish maximum storage space, 
with closets of the dresser type is therefore a mistake, since 
it furnishes an excess of table space at the expense of cupboard 
room. An ordinary cupboard or a series of open shelves, sup- 
plemented by a small table or work shelf with drawers below, 
is a much more appropriate arrangement than to break up the 
most valuable part of the storage space by the intrusion of a 
work shelf. The cabinet form is chiefly valuable in the kitchen 
proper. 



lis A MAMAL or IKtME MAKIXd 

'riu' suhjccl ot kilclicii st(»r;ijrc sIkhiIcI iinl he (jisiiiisscd willi- 
oul ciiipliasi/.inn I he usefulness of llic dunih-wailcr. This is 
ail alinosi iii(lisj)ciisal)l(' coiivcniciicc when a portion of tlio 
cellar is used for food sui)plics. TIk* dunih-wailcr will carry 
wood, coal, and food Ix'lwccu floors, and is a f^rcat lahor-saver. 
With such an arran^icnicnt, a cold part of the cellar may l»e 
substituted for the food pantry, even taking the jilace of an 
ice-l)OX satisfactorily. One trip a day to the cellar is enough 
to keep the lift supplied. 

IXTEUIOR FINISH 

Any kitchen that is to give full .satisfaction must be sound 
in arrangement, sightly in appearance, and smooth in opera- 
tion. Within reasonable limits, anything that can be devise(l 
to enforce this triple standard, must be considered worthy of 
trial. The demands of convenience will of course always come 
first, thereby deciding matters of arrangement and of manage- 
ment; but the less insistent needs for a work place that shall 
be a fit and lovely spot, must also be met. A clean, level floor, 
walls and furniture with smooth washable surfaces, anil a pleas- 
ing color scheme are elements that eliminate mental friction 
and that add the touch of refinement which makes of anj- work 
a joy. 

Up to the present time, no perfect flooring that is cheap 
enough for use in private homes has been evolved. The ma- 
terials most available are wood and linoleum. Of the two, 
linoleum is thought to be preferable, because it can be cemented 
tight to the under floor, it is practicallj' crackless, and it is 
ciuiet and easy to walk on. Plain brown ''battleshi])" linoleum 
is a reliable, standard j^roduct, or a modest inlaid pattern may 
be used instead. Experienced housekeepers claim that linoleum 
with a pattern is both more attractive and easier to keep clean 
than is the plain color. Although good linoleum is not a cheap 
floor covering, its satisfactory and lasting nature commends 
it in spite of its cost. 

A maple or a beech floor of narrow boards is the next best 
material. Yellow pine and oak ai-e too opcMi grained to make a 



PLANNING THE HOME KITCHEN 119 

satisfactory floor for kitchen use. Maple and beech are both 
hght in color and do not make a very attractive floor under 
hard use, but they can be scrubbed and kept clean. A maple 
floor should be finished by saturating it with hot linseed oil 
for a number of hours; then all the extra oil should be thoroughly 
wiped up. In this way, the wood is practically impregnated 
against the absorption of grease. 

Kitchen woodwork should be plain, with as few grooves and 
moldings as possible. Wooden wainscotings in kitchen and 
bathroom should never be used. 

For the interior finish of the kitchen, nothing is comparable 
to clean, light-colored paint for walls and woodwork. Warm 
grays, buffs, and other soft, neutral tints may be used. Some- 
times walls, woodwork, and furniture are all painted the same 
color, thereby uniting the whole effect. Even ready-made 
.cabinets, tables, and refrigerators are far more attractive if 
painted a light color. 

A kitchen finished in stained oak or varnished pine, like the 
remainder of the house, is unnecessarily monotonous. It 
should be differentiated from the other rooms in color scheme 
and general atmosphere. Light colors, mixed on a basis of 
white, are not only cheering and restful to look at, but have 
the further advantage of reflecting and distributing the light 
so that there are no dark corners. 

Such a room becomes also an easy and economical one to 
light well at night. When gas or oil lamps are used, light 
colors are positively invaluable in the kitchen. Each wall 
then becomes in reality a huge reflecting surface, so that a given 
amount of light is virtually used several times over. If an elec- 
tric fixture for indirect lighting — an inverted metal bowl — is 
placed centrally on a white ceiling, the entire kitchen is evenly 
lighted so that there are neither heavy shadows nor dark cor- 
ners to impede the work. Naturally, the lighter the general 
color scheme, the less the current that will be needed. Light 
colors may, therefore, be considered as having a practical, as 
well as an aesthetic, value. 



A MAMM. or HOME MAKlSd 



Hefekencer 
Cliild, ("icorj^ic Moynton. Tin- l^lficiciil Kilchrn. 1!>14. 
I'rcdcrick, C^hristiiic. The N'l-w Hoiisckfcpiiin. I'.Mii. 
('■oodiiow, Rul)y Ross, and Adams, Kayiic. Tlic Honest Mouse. 1911. 
Whiti', Charles E., Jr. Successful Houses and llow to Build Theni. l'J12. 



PART II 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER IV 

CARE OF THE HOUSE 

By Helen Knowlton 

For convenience as well as efficient work in housekeeping, 
a schedule of regular daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly proc- 
esses should be made out. Time can then be well planned, and 
a routine established that simplifies the machinery of house- 
keeping. 

CELLAR 

To keep the cellar in a sanitary condition, as much sunlight 
as possible should be admitted. The windows should be made 
as large as possible and be on opposite sides to insure cross- 
ventilation. If the house is banked for the winter, dry clean 
material should be used and the windows should not be covered. 
If the cellar floor is of concrete and is proof against dampness, 
it can be washed. The cellar walls should be whitewashed once 
or twice a year. Whitewash is a disinfectant. If the cellar 
walls admit moisture, it is recommended to wash them with a 
dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (1 part acid and 5 parts 
water) , and then apply a plaster of oil-mixed mortar. 

A cellar containing a heating plant should be divided into 
compartments. By constructing one of these compartments 
with an insulating wall of hollow tile, a cool room for vegetables 
may be secured. It is sometimes best to construct an outside 
cellar for such storage (page 584). 

121 



IJJ A MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC 

KITCHKN 

Sink. 

A sink without ninriirij; water is unjust ifiahlo for tho busy 
housewife. A (h'aiu connection with a trap and a sanitary (hs- 
posal outside for wastes should he provided. 'I'he lu'st kind of 
sink and the pi(»pei- height for plaeini; it aic (Hscu.ssed on pafi;o 
lOS. 

After eacli disliwashinfj;, the sink should he washed with hot 
soapy water, and the sink-trap flushed with a ^cktous supply 
of hot water. This trap must he cleaned occasionally with kero- 
sene. At least one gallon of hot water should he poured down 
and while the i)ipe is still warm, one-half cup of kerosene poured 
in. This should .stand for at least five minutes and then the 
trap mav l>e flushed with a second gallon of hot water. A solu- 
tion of washing-soda should not be used .since it tends to form 
a hard soap with the tircase and to stop up the pipe. Kerosene 
forms no soap, Init simply an emulsion. 

The sink should be kept .so far as possible for purposes con- 
nected only with the preparation of food and the cleaning of 
dishes. 

Walls and woodwork. 

Painted walls and woodwork are most easily cleaned. They 
ma}' be wipcnl with a broom covered with a soft cloth for fre- 
quent cleaning. A long-handled brush is better than a broom. 
Occasionally they may be scrubbed with a soft brush, warm 
water and borax, and rinsed before being dried. 

Floors. 

Floor finishes best adapted for the kitchen are discussed on 
page 117. A mop-wringer is a great convenience in the work of 
mopping the kitchen floor. 

Dishwashing. 

Since the aim of dishwashing is to clean the dishes and to kill 
the bacteria that may be present l\v the use of .soapsuds and 
scalding water, special care should be taken in case of ton- 
silitis, colds, and other infectious diseases. Unless the dishes 



CARE OF THE HOUSE 123 

of the patient are boiled, the germs may infect the whole 
family. 

Kitchen towels and cups. 

The roller towel for family use as well as the common drink- 
ing-cup must be discarded, if the health of the family is to be 
safeguarded. 

Kitchen dresses. 

Washable work dresses are the only land suitable for wearing 
in a kitchen. They have been proved to be economical of 
both money and time. They may be made of various inexpen- 
sive and satisfactory materials (page 368). Short sleeves and 
turndown collars or no collars at all add to the comfort of the 
worker. The design should be the simplest possible. 

LIVING-ROOM AND DINING-ROOM 

The window shades of the living-room and the dining-rooin 
should be raised more than halfway to let in the sunshine, 
and the windows should be opened frequently to air out and 
to keep the temperature below 70'^ F. 

SLEEPING-ROOMS 

The ideal sleeping-room is the outdoor porch with only cur- 
tains for protection. An indoor sleeping-room should have 
simple furnishings. Unnecessary draperies collect dust and 
exclude air and sunshine. The floor should be bare save for a 
few small, easily cleaned rugs. The wall paper should be of a 
soft restful color, either plain or with small inconspicuous figures. 

An iron bed is better than a wooden one because it can be 
more easily cleaned. A mattress is more healthful than a 
feather bed, because the body is not so enveloped as to hinder 
the escape of waste matter from the skin. The bed covering 
should be warm but light. Several light-weight blankets or 
comforts are better than fewer heavy ones. 

BATHROOM 

Absolute cleanliness and abundant ventilation are essential 
in a sanitary bathroom. Kerosene applied with a special brush 



124 A M.WIWL OF HOME MAKIXG 

or rlotli to the liatliliil), l.'owl, and toilet and wasliod o(T with 
a iroo<i soap solution will solve most of the difiiculties of cleaninn. 
All hiushes oi cloths used in cleaniuK the bathroom should ho 
thoroughly washed in clean soap-suds, rinsed in hot water, 
and (hied in the sunlij^ht each time after hein^ use<l. Occasional 
flushin;^; of the toilet with a strong solution of washin;z;-soda is 
desirable. 

Faucets, door knobs, and all parts of the toilet ever touched 
by tile hands, as well as the usually cleaned parts, should be 
washed occasionally with a solution of some good disinfectant, 
such as creolin, lysol, or alcohol. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR SWEEPING AND DUSTING 

Dust should be avoided, since it irritates the throat and may 
carry germs. If possible a vacuum sweeper should be used. If a 
broom is used it should be dampened, or bits of moist paper 
or some commercial substance for sweeping should l)e sj^rinkled 
over the floor. In sweeping, short strokes should be taken 
away from the person. Rugs which can be cleaned outdoors 
are generally preferable to carpets. 

Dustless mops and dustless dusters are sanitary labor-savers. 
They can be made at home b}- dipping the mop or the duster in 
a solution of some vegetable oil, such as linseed or cottonseed 
oil, in gasoline or other solvent, about one tablespoon of oil to 
one pint of gasoline being used. There should be no fire in the 
room where the gasoline is used. The mop or duster should be 
hung outdoors until the gasoline has evaporated. The oil will 
be evenly distributed in this way. The duster may be washed 
once or twice before it is necessary to redip it in the oil 
solution. 

REPAIR KIT 

A well-stocked repair kit should be a part of the equipment 
of every household. It should be placed in a convenient loca- 
tion and should contain: hammer, screwdriver, plane, pliers, 



CARE OF THE HOUSE 125 

awl, oil-can, saw, soldering outfit, knife sharpener, twine, shears, 
and such tacks, nails, screws, hooks, and wire as are most often 
in demand. 

SOME SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR CLEANING * 

Cleaning closet 

In every house there should be a cupboard or a closet set 
aside for cleaning purposes, "with a place for everything and 
everything in its place." The cleaning materials and apparatus 
listed under the following directions are not expensive and 
greatly simplify the cleaning problem. Shelves and racks should 
be provided for holding all apparatus and materials needed, 
and as far as possible labels should show where each brush, 
broom, pail, or bottle is to be returned. 

The following list of materials and utensils should be included 
in the housekeeper's cleaning kit : 







Cleaning materials 


Alcohol 




Paraffin 


Alum 




Rottenstone 


Ammonia 




Salt 


Bath brick 




Soap 


Black lead 




Turpentine 


Borax 




Vinegar 


Furniture polish 




Washing-soda 


Kerosene 




Wax (floor) 


Light oil 




Whiting 


Olive oil 




Cleaning articles 


Apron, stove 




Flannel, heavy 


Carpet, piece old brussels 


Flannel, waxing 


Chamois skin or 


leather 


Flannelette for dusters 


Cheese-cloth 




Gloves, rubber 


Cloth, scrub 




Mitt, for kerosene 


Cloth, soft 




Waste, cotton (cotton waste may be bought 


Flannel, canton 




at any hardware store) 



* Mary Uric Watson. Rules for cleaning. Cornell Reading-Course for 
the Farm Home, Bull. 23. 



120 



.1 MAM AL or IIOMI-: MAKIXa 



Boiler, for clothes 
Brush, closet 
Brush, cornico 
Brush, scrul) 
Brush, soft 
Brush, trap 
Brush, \veijiht(<l 
Brush, wire (for sink) 
Ciirpot sweeper 
Dauber 
Dish-pans 
Funnels 
Ironing tables 



( 'lldllllKJ ullH.'iiljl 

Irons 

Monkey wrench 

Mof), cloth 

Moj), strinn 

Saucepans (old) 

Scissors (for lamp) 

Step ladder 

Tul) 

Tul), fiber 

WaslilKjard 

Whisk-t)room 

Wringer 



To clean lamps. 

The apparatus necessary for cleaning lamp is an old news- 
paper, the kerosene can, a damp flannelette duster, lamp scissors, 
and a dry towel. 

1. Carry the lamps to a -sink, or to a table convenient to the sink. 
2. Spread the paper and place everything on it. 3. Wash and dry the 
lam)) chimneys as if they were tumblers. 4. Open up the lamp burner, 
screw up the wick, trim off all the char with the scis.sors, and screw down 
the wick 14 inch below the brass. Round wicks must have the char rubbed 
off with the duster. .5. Soap one corner of the duster and rub carefully 
every part of the brass burner; if necessary, polish (see copper, page 232). 
6. Fill each lamp nearly full of kerosene. See that the burner is properly 
screwed on, and wipe the body of the lamp carefully. 7. Put on the chim- 
neys and set the lamps in th(>ir places. 8. Wash the scis.sors and duster 
and hang the duster to dry. Gather all trimmings in the paper and burn 
both trimmings and paper. They are not safe to leave around. 

To oil a kitchen stove. 

1. Put a little light oil on a wad of cotton waste and rub it on all the 
iron parts of the stove. 2. Rub it ofT with fresh waste, an old cloth, or 
some crumpled paper. 3. Polish it with a dry flannelette or woolen cloth 
until all oilincss is gone. 4. Burn the waste, old cloth, or paper because 
oily waste and oily cloths are a frequent cause of fire through spontaneous 
combustion. 5. Wash out the polishing cloth. 

To clean a gas stove thoroughly. 

This process requires the following apparatus: A stove apron, 
a few old newspapers, a wire sink-brush, a monkey wrench. 



CARE OF THE HOUSE 127 

whisk, dustpan and brush, a sink towel, several pieces of old 
cloth, soap and washing-soda, and the oil bottle. 

1. Put on the apron and spread the papers on the table. 2. Turn off 
the gas at the main supply pipe with the monkey wrench. 3. Fill a large 
dish-pan with strong, hot soap-suds, put into it to soak the dripping-pan 
and rack and any movable nickel pieces of the stove. 4. Fill a tub half 
full of strong, hot soda-water. Put the drop tray in the bottom to soak, 
and on top of it put the top grates, doors, and all movable black parts of 
the stove. 5. Brush out both ovens and all parts of the stove frame. 
6. Wet one of the old cloths in hot water, rub it on the soap, and wash off 
the stove. Dry it, if necessary, with an old cloth. Then oil the black parts 
very lightly with the oil and polish it off thoroughly with another old dry 
cloth. 7. Remove the pieces from the soda-water, rinse them in the sink 
in fresh warm water, and scrub the doors and other black pieces with the 
wire brush. Dry them off, oil and polish them, and put them back on the 
stove. 8. Let the dirty water out of the sink, transfer the nickel pieces, 
dripping-pan, and rack to the sink, pour in the soapy water, scrub the 
pieces thoroughly, dry them with the sink towel, and return them to place. 
9. Scrub, rinse, dry, and return to place the drop tray. 10. Oil the stove 
after all the parts are put together. 11. Burn the old cloths and wash 
the sink out carefully. It is especially necessary to be careful about burn- 
ing oily cloths that are not washed after using, because they have been 
known to take fire spontaneously and are therefore dangerous when tucked 
into corners out of sight. 

To dean windows. 

A high stepladder, fiber tub, damp flannelette duster, scrub 
cloth, soft linen towel, chamois leather, ammonia, and warm 
water are necessary to clean windows. 

1. Fill the tub half full of warm water and add a tablespoonful of am- 
monia or a few drops of kerosene. 2. Carry the ladder to the window, roll 
up the shade, and take it down. Unroll it on the floor or over a table, 
then roll it up, dusting both sides as it rolls. Stand it aside, marking to 
which window it belongs if more than one is being cleaned. 3. Dust the 
window, especially the surrounding woodwork, with the damp flannelette 
duster. 4. Wash the glass, especially corners, and dry with the linen towel. 
5. Polish mth the chamois leather. 6. Replace the shade, testing carefully, 
and make sure the spring works properly. 7. Wash out the tub, towel, 
cloth, and duster. Hang the cloths to dry and put everything else away. 
8. If chamois leather is not available, use crumpled newspaper. 9. The 
following mixture may be used instead of ammonia and water, but the 
resulting white dust must be carefully wiped up: 1 tablespoonful pre- 
cipitated whiting; 2 tablespoonfuls household ammonia. 



128 .1 MAM .\L or IIOMI: MAKI.XC 

Ti> (It (III ii jiiiiiii) <(is( . 

A holt \r of olive oil, .1 Imt t Ir of :ilcoliol, xMiic lirw or pcifcctly 
clciin (•;iiilon tiaiiiicl, a pcifccl ly clean clianiois leather, and a 
biusin of water will he nettled (o clean a piano. 

1. Wet :i smiiU |)i('r-o of I lie flaiiiicl and drop on it a few drops of nil. 
2. Riili, with the wet flannel, a small seetion of the case at a time, and 
immediately rub it (lioroiij;hly with a dry piece of the flannel, before 
proceeding to a fresh section. 3. Polish it finally with I he chamois or a fnsh 
piece of the flannel. Rul) with the ^rain of the wood, and breathe on it 
occasionally to help remove any oiliness that may remain. A very little 
flour nibbed with the p;rain of the wood will also help to remove oilinesjs, 
but its use should not be necessary. 4. Wash the piano keys with a corner 
of the flannel wet with alcohol. Be careful, however, to avoid toucbiog 
the wood with the alcohol, as it will ruin the varuLsh. 

To wax a floor. 

In w'axing floors, the following apparatus is necessary: a 
can of floor wax, a waxing flannel, a half yard of heavy flannel 
or a piece of old brussels carpet, and a weighted brush. 

1. The floor must be clean and free from dust. 2. If nece&sary, stand 
the wax can in a dish of hot water in order to soften the wax. 3. Rub 
the waxing flannel on the wax and put a very thin, even layer of wax on 
the floor. It is better to rub along the boards than across. Start at the 
corner farthest from the door, and do not step on the waxed part. 4. Put 
away the wax and flannel, and keep off the floor for at least three hours. 
The polishing can be done after standing an hour, but is more work. 
5. Fold the piece of heavy flannel twice, making four layers, put it down 
on the floor, put the weighted l)rush on it, and rub each board, with the 
grain, until it shines. The piece of carpet makes an excellent substitute 
for the flannel. The polishing can be done on the hands and knees without 
a weighted brush, but is much harder work. 



CHAPTER V 

HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 

The modern household should be equipped with well-selected 
measuring appliances which can be intelligently used not only 
to help standardize the daily housework and living conditions 
in the home but also to insure and promote just dealing in the 
community. The exact value of units used must be clearly 
known. Since the use of the metric system (page 167) is for- 
tunately becoming more widespread, future generations may 
escape the problems arising from the vagueness and ambiguity 
of the systems now in common use in this country.* 

MEASUREMENTS FOR COMMODITIES 

Measuring apparatus for household commodities should be 
tested and sealed by the local sealer of weights and measures, 
at the time of purchase. 

Weighi7ig scale. 

A weighing scale should have a capacity of 10 to 30 pounds 
or more, and should be graduated to 1 ounce or less. Among 
good types on the market are the hanging-pan spring scale, 
the counter beam scale, and the beam scale of the steelyard 
type designed to hang from a bracket. The cheap scale in 
which the commodity pan stands above the spring, is likely 
to be inaccurate. 

To use the scale properly, the following precautions should 
be observed: (1) Handle it carefully, and keep it clean and dry, 
(2) Keep it in balance. A properly constructed scale will rarely 
get out of balance, but the proper way of adjusting a particular 

*The following material in this chapter, with the exception of the tables 
indicated, is condensed from Measurements for the Household, Circ. 55, 
published by the Bur. of Standards, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 

129 



130 A M.WCAf. OF IIOME-MAKISG 

kind of scale slioiiM lie lcariic(|. {'.\\ Krrp the eye sf|Uar('ly in 
front of the point of tlic scale tliat is heiny; read. (4) Df) not 
weigh a connnodity in cardhoard or other heavy covering wilh- 
oul weighing the covering separately and de(hicting its weight 
from the total weight. 

Liquid measures. 

The suppl}' of h(iui(l measures siiould include a quart, a pint, 
aikl a half-])int measure, and a4-ounceglass graduate suhdivided 
to 1 dram or less for measuring small (juantities of licjuids and 
determining the eiiors in hirger cjuantities. The measures 
should be cylindrical or conical with the top diameter smaller 
than the bottom, and made of metal, enamelware, composition, 
or similar and suitable material. The}^ should be strong and 
rigid enough to withstand ortlinary usage. 

To test the quantity of a licjuid as delivered, the following 
directions will be useful: Pour the liquid into the measure. 
If it does not fill the measure, pour it out and fill the' measure 
with water to the same point that the purchased liquid I'eaciicd. 
This can be done by obsendng the wet ring left around the 
measure. Then put a definite quantity of water into the gradu- 
ate, and complete the filling of the measure. The difference 
between the quantity of liquid remaining in the graduate and 
the original quantity put in is the shortage. If the quantity 
of liquid ordered more than fills the test measure, the check for 
error is made on the last portion poured into the measure. 

To avoid mistakes in reading cone graduates, it should be 
noted that these are sometimes more finely sulxlividcd at the 
base than at the top. 

A graduate should be held level in filling it or reading it. 
It should be read at the main surface of the liquid, not at the 
point to which the small amount of licjuitl creeps on the sides 
of the glass. 

Dry measures. 

A nest of dry measures holding from 3 2 bushel to 1 quart 
may be necessary, although the growing tendency is to sell ilry 
commodities by weight. 'I'he weight of a bushel of certain 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 131 

common dry commodities, as fixed by law in certain states, is 
given on page 162. Dry measures should be of metal, or of 
well-varnished wood with a metal band around the top, or of 
some similar and suitable material. They should preferably 
be cylindrical. If they are conical, the top diameter should 
exceed the bottom diameter by an amount not greater than 
10 per cent of the bottom diameter. The diameters should in 
no case be less than the following: 

For }4 bushel 13V4 inches 

For 1 peck ICVs inches 

For 32 peck SV2 inches 

For two quartr, G^/s inches 

For 1 quart 5^8 inches 

For 1 pint 4 inches 

Length measure. 

For measuring length, a yardstick and a tape 3 or 6 feet in 
length are recommended. 

TEMPERATURE 

The following thermometers should be a part of the equip- 
ment of every household : 

Room-temperature thermometer. 

To give a fair measure of the temperature of a room, a ther- 
mometer should be placed about four feet from the floor, away 
from a stove, radiator, or ventilation flue and not on an out- 
side Avail. Under certain conditions fifteen minutes or more may 
be required to show the correct temperature if a thermometer 
is moved. 

Outdoor thermometer. 

To indicate the real temperature of outdoor air as given in 
the weather reports, a thermometer must be mounted in a 
specially well ventilated house or box four feet from the ground 
and so built as to shield the thermometer entirely from direct 
sunlight. Nearly the same results may be secured Ijy placing 
a thermometer in an open shady place, possibly at the north of 
a building, several feet away from the walls and four feet from 
the ground. 



132 



A MAMAL OF llOMEMAKLSd 



'O 



-zy 



— Auti^rSe 248 






105 



-138 



-H3- 



( 7/// iral Ihrnnomckr. 

The usual clinical thermometer is a "maxi- 
mum" thermometer, that is, the uuTcury in 
the stem registers the highest teiniK-rature 
reached and does not return when the ther- 
mometer is cooled, hut nmst l)e shaken hack 
before another temperature can be measured. 
For this reason the thermometer may be 
removed from the mouth and read later. 

The usual type of "lens-front" thermome- 
ter is so made that the front of the kI^ss tube 
acts as a lens magnifying the width of the 
mercury thread. To read such a thermome- 
ter, it should be held in the hand and turned 
until the mercury column suddenly appears 
magnified to considerable width. This will 
occur when the clear corner of the triangular 
tube is directl}^ in front. The reading can 
then be made, remembering that the smallest 
divisions of the scale are usually 0°.2. The 
mercury should then be shaken back into the 
bulb by holding the thermometer firmly be- 
tween thumb and forefinger, Inilb outward, 
and giving a few very l)]-isk shakes from the 
wrist, or with the arm, and then seeing that 
the thermometer reads as low as 96° F. or 
35°.5 C. The thermometer should never be 
tapped against a hard substance, as this is 
almost certain to break the bulb. 

Bath thermometers. 

Bath thermometers usuall}'" have their 
scales printed on paper or milk glass contained 
in a large glass tul^e w^hich incloses the ther- 
mometer capillary. The}' are often jirotected 
by a wooden cage to prevent breakage. When 
thus protected, it may take some time to ol> 

Fio. 40. — Comparison f)f Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales for nioasiirinK tem- 
perature. 



:>s- 



-15- 



tJ 



-1.^ 



-?5 



-2; 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 133 

tain the real temperature of the water unless the thermometer 
is kept moving. The temperatures in different parts of a tub of 
water may differ many degrees unless the water has been well 
mixed. 

A bath thermometer should be read while it is in the water 
because the readings will change very rapidly when the ther- 
mometer is taken out of warm water. 

Milk thermometers. 

Milk thermometers are useful in measuring the temperature 
of milk or cream, for the control of pasteurizing milk, churning 
cream, whipping cream, and the like. These processes are best 
carried out at definite temperatures. Some of these milk ther- 
mometers are purposely made large and light so that they will 
float, making their use more convenient. 

Candy-making thermometers. 

These thermometers are for use in making candies, boiling 
sirups, and the like. The thermometer should not be too near 
the bottom or the sides of the kettle, nor yet should it be at 
the point where boiling is most violent. Some of the tempera- 
tures at which boiling sirups should be removed from the fire 
to make different kinds of candies, as well as other useful in- 
formation as to temperature, are given in Table II. 

A candy-making thermometer may be tested for accuracy 
as follows : First find the boiling, point for any altitude from 
Table I (thus at 2,000 feet elevation the average temperature is 
208° F. or 98° C.) ; then hold the thermometer with its bulb well 
immersed in a dish of briskly boiling pure water, and read the 
highest temperature reached. If this differs from that found in 
the table, the thermometer is too high or too low by this dif- 
ference. 

Oven thermometers. 

Various kinds of thermometers are used for reading oven 
temperatures. One kind is placed in the oven door and has a 
dial with a hand for indicating the temperatures. These ther- 
mometers may not indicate the true temperature of the oven 
because the door never becomes as hot as the remainder of the 



\M A M.WfAL OF HOME MAKIXd 

oven, ;iml (iftcii tiikcs niiicli litiijicr in lical iii}i; up. However, 
since leinperal uics soiiicl iiiics tieecl not, Ik- known more !u;eu- 
rately llian within 10 or 20 (le;:;rees, such iherniorneters un^ use- 
ful and are more convenient than those which have to he himj!; 
inside (he oven. One kind of thorniometer which reads uj) to 
550° F., is made to screw into a special opening in the range. 
It may bo hun^i inside the ov(>n, hu( in this case the door must be 
oj)cncd or a window provided in order to read it. 

Tests for thcnnomctcrs. 

Household thermometers from i-oliablc makers are usually 
correct to within 1 or 2 dof^rees at room temperature and below, 
although sometimes they are several degrees in error. 

Any thermometer which has 32° F. or 0° C. on its scale may be 
easily tested at this point by scraping a tumbler full of clear ice, 
saturating this with ice-cold, pure water, and placing the ther- 
mometer ])ull) in this mixture until it reads as low as it will 
go. Clean snow' saturated with water may also be used, Ijut 
if the snow is left dry it may be much colder than 32° F. If the 
thermometer tested reads 32° F. or 0° C, it is correct at this 
point. If higher or lower than this, it is too high or too low by 
the amount of the difference observed. Such a test is reliable 
to a tenth of a degree if carefull}' made. 

For other temperatures there are no tests which are quite as 
convenient or reliable as for the ice point. The steam point, 
212° F. or 100° C, is used in the testing of thermometers in the 
laboratory, l)ut the steam temperature depends on the baro- 
metric reading, which varies with the weather, and with the 
altitude of the place where the water is l)oiled. For places 
within 500 feet of sea level, the temperature shown by a ther- 
mometer immersed in a steam l)ath over briskly boiling water, 
or in the water itself if the same is pure, should be between 
210° and 212° F., or between 99°, and 100° G. For higher alti- 
tudes the temperature will be lower, as may be seen from 
Table I. The temperatures given in this tal)le are averages only 
and vanations of 1° 1'. or 0°.G. C. may take place from day to 
day because of changes in the barometric pressure. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 135 



If a tested clinical thermometer is at hand, a fairly accurate 
test at about 100° F. may be made. A thermometer which is 
correct at the ice point and at about 100° F. will probably be 
correct at other temperatures. Clinical thermometers should 
be tested by a competent testing laboratory, such as that at the 
United States Bureau of Standards. 

TABLE I. — BoiLixG Point of Water and Average Barometer 
Readings for Different Altitudes 



Aliunde 


Temperature of stemn 


Corrected barometer 
Average readings 




Degrees F. 


Degrees C. 


Inches 


Millimeters 


Sea level 


212.0 
208.3 
204.6 
201.1 
197.6 
194.0 


100.0 
97.9 
95.9 
93.9 
92.0 
90.0 


29.9 
27.8 
25.8 
24.0 
22.3 
20.7 


760 


2000 feet 


706 


4000 feet 


655 


6000 feet 


610 


8000 feet 


566 


10,000 feet 


526 







T.A.BLE II. — Useful Temper.\tures 



Mercury freezes 

Freezing cold storage 

Water freezes 

Danger of frost 

Household refrigerator, proper temperature 

Churning 

Gymnasium, or rooms where occupants are actively 
engaged in physical work or exercise 

Ripening of cream . . : 

Rooms where occupants are not exercising 

Normal temperature of the human body determined by 

thermometer under the tongue 

Incubator temperature . 



Degrees 
Fahren- 
heit 




i;i(i 



.1 .u.i.vr.w, or no mi: mm<i.\(; 



'lAlilJ; II. Cmlinur,! 



Ilish fovor, toinporaturc iiiciLsurod iia al)OVc 

Pastcuriziiin milk 

Pastiniri/.iiij: milk (flash |)r()(;oss) 

Water boils at normal pressure 

Plain supar sirups: 

For sirup, 11 pounds to the gallon 

For fondant candies 

For fudge and other candies of like nature ... 

For talTy and like hard candies to he pulled . 

For clear brittle candies, peanut brittle, etc. . 

For almond and walnut brittle 

Melting point of common soft solder 

Oven temperatures for baking: 

Custards, meringues, pies, puddings, etc 

Sponge cake, bread, gingerbread, plain cake, and 
cookies 

Parker House rolls, popovers, and biscuits 

Biscuit and pastry 

Melting point of lead 

Melting point of aluminum 



Degrees 

Fahren- 

heU 



105 
145 
1(>0 
■_'12 

•J 19 
236 
240 
240 
300 
310 
315 
365 

250 
350 
350 
400 
400 
450 
450 
550 
621 
121.S 



TABLE III.— A Tahlf, of Tkmperatures * 



Process 


Degrees 
Centigrade 


Degrees 
Fahrenheit 


P'reezing of fruit ices (temperature ol 


—5 to — S 

3 to 10 
15 to 16 

26 to 40 


23 to 18 


Freezing of water 

Whipping of cream 


32 
37 to 50 




60 


Raising of bread (temperature of 


70 to 104 







* Williams, Anna W., and Gray, Cora E., Cooking Temperatures, Bull. 
47. Univ. of 111. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 137 



TABLE III. 


— Continued 




* 
Process 


Degrees 
Centigrade 


Degrees 
Fahrenheit 


Cheese-making 

Coagulation of albumin 

Simmering of water 


37 to 60 

(Depends upon acidity) 

Begins 56; completes 71 

82 to 99 

82 to 84 

89 to 94 

100 

103 

113 
111 
113 to 115 ■ 
117 

125 

122 

250 
175 

46.5 to 60 
60 to 70 
70 to 80 

175 to 190 
185 to 205 
190 to 195 

175 to 190 
150 to 170 

200 
180 to 220 


98.6 to 140 

133 to 160 
180 to 210 


Soft custards 


179 to 183 


Double boiler, top part 


192 to 201 


Boiling water at sea level 

Jellies (boiling point of water 100° C.) 
Sugar cookery (boiling point of water 
100° C.) 
Fondant 


212 
185 

235 


Fudge frosting, boiled 

1 egg white to 1 cup sugar . 

2 egg whites to 1 cup sugar 
1 egg white to 1 cup of dark 

brown sugar 


232 
235 to 239 
243 

257 


1 egg white to % cup of dark 
brown sugar, }4 cup 
white 


252 


* Roasting of meat 

Temperature of oven 

First 15 minutes 


450 


Remainder of time 

Temperature of meat interior 
Rare done 


347 
115.7 to 140 


Medium 


140 to 158 


Well done 


158 to 176 


Deep-fat frying. Temperature of fat 
for 

Uncooked foods 


347 to 374 


Cooked foods 


365 to 401 


Cold, wet, uncooked foods 

Baking. Temperature of center of 
oven for 

Sponge cakes 


374 to 383 
347 to 374 


Angel food cakes 


302 to 338 


Souffles (surrounded by water) 

Bread 


392 
356 to 428 







* Sprague, Elizabeth, and Grindley, H. C, "A Precise Method of Roast- 
ing Beef," Univ. of 111. Bull., Vol. IV, No. 19. 



i;is 



.1 MAMM. or HOME M.XKISC 



TAHI,!; \U.--('orainm:d 



Process 


Degrees 
Cenligrddc 


Degrees 
FcJircnheil 


Butter rakos 

Loaf 


I'.tO 

210 
220 to 235 

235 

235 
235 to 2 10 
235 to 200 

210 


374 


Layer 


410 


Muflins 


428 to 455 


Parkcrhouso rolls 

Baked pot atoes 

Bakinp; powder biscuit 

Popovers 


455 

455 
455 to 4()-l 
455 to 3'i2 


* Pastry 


104 



* Sjiranue, l']lizal)('tli, ".Studies of Methods in Food Preparation," 
Journal of Home Economics, Vol. Ill, No. 5, p. 446. 

TIME 

The usual clocks found in the home may be divided into 
two classes, the mantel or wall clock type, which has a pendu- 
lum, and the common alarm-clock type, in which the movx'mont 
is controlled by the vil)ratic)ns of a balance wheel, as in a watch. 
The second variety is (juite portable and will usuall}^ run in any 
position, but the pendulum clock must be kept fixed in an up- 
right position and must be adjusted every time it is moved. 

Moving a pendulum clock. 

The pendulum clock usually has its pendulum suspended by a 
thin flat spring, and to avoid breaking this spring when the 
clock is to be moved from one place to another, it is best either 
to unhook the bob from the pendulum rod or to secure the 
pendulum tightly to the clock works or case so that it cannot 
swing. In setting up such a clock after removal, it is necessary 
to put the clock "in beat"; that is, to make the successive vi- 
brations of the pendulum, or the time between successive ticks 
of the clock, of equal length. This must be done by carefully 
leveling the clock on its support, unless the clock is provided 
with adjusting thumbscrews at the top of the pendulum by the 
movement of which one way or the other it can be made to 
beat uniformly. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 139 

Setting a clock. 

The setting of a pendulum clock is usually best done by turn- 
ing the minute hand forward, several revolutions if necessary, 
to bring the hour hand to the correct hour. If the clock does 
not have a striking mechanism, the hour hand, which is usually 
held on its slightly conical shaft by friction, may be moved 
forward a sufficient number of hours, and the minute hand ad- 
justed to the correct minute. As the hour hand may have be- 
come loosened on its shaft by this procedure, however, it should 
be pressed tightly into place after it is set correctly. In some 
clocks with a striking mechanism, the minute hand should not 
be moved backward across a striking point, although it can, 
without injury, be moved back short distances in other parts 
of the dial to set it correctly. 

Regulating a clock. 

Few clocks of either the pendulum or the alarm-clock type 
are made with devices to compensate for changes in temperature, 
and as these changes will alter the rate, it is desirable to keep 
the clock in the part of a room where its temperature will be 
most constant. Even with the best conditions in this respect, 
it will be necessary to regulate the clock's rate frequently on 
account of the changes of temperature with season oi with the 
conditions of heating or cooling of the room. A rise of tempera- 
ture will lengthen the pendulum rod and make the clock run 
more slowly. It will be necessary, therefore, to raise the pendu- 
lum bob by turning the supporting nut, unless an adjustment 
device is provided by which a contact point on the suspension 
spring at the top of the pendulum can be changed. This is 
done by turning a key to right or left in a small keyhole 
in the face of the clock, usually near the upper part of the 
dial. This has the effect of shortening or lengthening the 
pendulum. 

In the alarm-clock type, the regulation is done by moving 
a small lever, usually at the back of the clock, which engages 
with the hairspring on the balance wheel, and so decreases or 
increases the effective length of the spring, thus controlling 



110 A MAMAL (li llttMK MAKIXG 

llu' (imc of a vihrat.ioii of the halaiicc The lever should bo 
moved toward the leller "S" \vh(;ii oiu; wishes to make IIk; 
clock run more slowly and toward "F" when it should rim 
faster. The same rule applies in the regulation of a watch. 

\\'hen rej^ulatiiiji; a pendulum clock hy the key device, tho 
key should he turned overhand toward the letter "S" or "F," 
aecordinp; as one wishes to make tho clock run more slowly or 
faster. If there are no indicatinjj; letters ("F" and "S") pro- 
vided, the usual rule is to turn the key in the direction the 
hands move to make it go faster or counterclockwise to make 
it run more slowly. 

The amount of movement required to correct the rate must 
generall}' be found by trial. Thus, if the clock gains five min- 
utes a da3% and one turns the key of the re<!;ulator two revolu- 
tions toward "S," or moves the lever of an alarm clock two 
divisions toward "S," and the clock then loses three minutes 
a day, one can obtain nearly zero rate by turning the key 
three-quarters of a revolution back toward "F" or by mov- 
ing the lever three-quaiters of a division back toward "F. " 
In some pendulum clocks there may be some motion lost in 
reversing the regulation, and this should be taken into account 
in estimating the amount to move the regulator. 

To correct the striking of a clock. 

While some clocks of a more recent type have the hour and 
minute pinions and the striking mechanism so geared together 
that it is almost impossible for the clock to strike wrongly, this 
frequently happens with other types of clocks. This difhculty 
can be remedied easily in the latter case by several methods. 
One method, which can be used in case the hour hand is held 
in position on its shaft by friction only, is to move the hour 
hand backwartl or forward an hour or more as may be neces- 
sary to make the hour indicated by the clock-face agree w'ith 
the striking mechanism, pressing the hour hand tight on its 
shaft afterwards, as described above. Then the clock should 
be set to correct time by moving the minute hand around the 
dial the necessary number of times, allowing the clock to strike 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 141 

the full amount each time the hand passes the XII point before 
approaching that point again. This method is especially con- 
venient when the clock strikes one or two strokes less than it 
should. When it strikes more strokes than it should, the 
same method may be used, or the minute hand may be 
turned ahead rapidly so that it will again pass through the XII 
point while the clock is still striking for the previous hour. By 
so doing the striking mechanism is not released to strike the 
following hour, and thus an hour is gained in the face indica- 
tion of the clock compared with the striking. This may be 
repeated as many times as the number of strokes by which the 
striking mechanism was in error. The clock may then be set to 
correct time in the usual way, allowing it to strike the full 
amount on each passage of the XII point, or the clock may 
be stopped for as man}'- hours as it is fast, until again it indi- 
cates the correct hour, when it can be started and set correct 
without the necessity of striking all the nine, ten, or eleven 
hours that may have intervened. 

Some clocks have a lever in the movement — an extension of 
the striking mechanism release arm or shaft — which can be 
moved up or down to release the striking mechanism and al- 
low it to strike as many hours as are necessary to bring 
it into agreement with the indication of the hands. Or, if a 
special lever for the purpose is not provided, it is sometimes 
easy, on opening the door to the works of the clock, to find 
the release arm itself and by raising it accomplish the same 
result. 

Care of timepieces. 

Precautions should be taken not only with clocks but also 
with watches to keep them at a constant temperature if one 
wishes to obtain the best results with them. If possible a watch 
should be kept at nearly the same temperature at night as 
during the day. The variations with the drop in temperature 
at night will affect the rate of the alarm clock uncompensated 
for temperature much more than that of a watch, which is usu- 
ally compensated for high and low temperatures. 



\\'2 .1 M.wiM. or ihtMi: MM\i.\f; 

The careful liaiidliiin of a liiii('|)i('cc of the l)alaric('-\vh('el 
fypo -clock or watch is also imjiorlaiil, hccaiisc of the efTcct 
on I he a(lju>tiiieiit and rate. All sikldon changes of motion 
should he avoided, and a fall is liable to bend some of the pivots 
and seriously chan^fc the rate. The ptjsition in which it is 
kept also makes a lat{i;e dilTerence in its rate;, especially with 
the unadjusted cheaper types, lioth the watch and the clock 
should best be kept in an upright position, both day and night, 
as uniformity of practice is the chief e.ssential. All timepieces 
should, of course, be kept protected from dust and dirt. They 
should be wound rejjularly. It is perhaps better to wind a 
watch twice a day than once a day, if it is done regularly, and 
the last part of the winding should be done slowly to avoid in- 
jury to the mechanism. 

An alarm clock. 

An alarm clock may be made very useful in giving a warn- 
ing of the necessity of inspecting a given process which other- 
wise might be overlooked, and when food materials are fre- 
quently spoiled in preparation from lack of attention, the use 
of an alarm clock will soon save its cost. 

In using the alarm feature of an alarm clock, the setting 
mechanism should be turned in one direction only, for the 
same reason as in the case of setting a clock with striking mech- 
anism to correct time, to avoid locking or breaking the setting 
device. Occasionally the indicating hand of the alarm will 
not be placed correctly on its pinion and the alarm will sound 
at a different time from that expected. This error will be a 
constant one, however, and its amount having been once 
learned, allowance may be made for it in setting the hand; or 
a watch repairer can correct the fault very quickly. Many 
alarm clocks have the dial for setting the alarm of very small 
diameter, making it difficult accurately to set the hand. For 
this use it is desirable to secure a clock with as large an alarm- 
hand dial as possible, preferably one having the alarm hand 
set on the central pinion with the hour and minute hands. 
With such a clock the alarm can be set quite accurately 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 143 



for giving a signal at short intervals and can be used to 
give warnings of the time to inspect certain processes of the 
kitchen, for the taking of medicine at regular intervals, and the 
like. 

MEASURING GAS 

How to read a gas meter. 

The index of an ordinary gas meter, which is similar to that 
of an electric or a water meter, is shown in Fig. 41. The smal- 




F&ET 



^T^» ^s5Tr4S4. >;y52¥sa*, 






Fig. 41.— The index of a gas meter. Each dial 
is marked with the volume of gas passed a 
revolution. The smaller top dial, which is 
marked "Two Feet" inside of the circle, is 
generally called the ' ' testing circle " or " prov- 
ing head" and is used principally in testing 
the meter. 

ler top dial, which is marked "Two feet" inside of the circle, is 
generally called the "testing circle" or "proving head," and 
is used principally in testing the meter. One revolution of 
the hand of the testing circle indicates that 2 cubic feet of gas 
have passed through the meter. In some meters one revolu- 
tion of the hand of the testing circle represents more or less 
than 2 cubic feet of gas and the testing circles are correspond- 
ingly marked. The indication of the hand of the testing circle 
is ignored in the ordinary reading of the meter. 

Of the large dials the first one at the right is usually marked 
"1 thousand." This means that during one complete revolu- 
tion of the hand, 1000 cubic feet of gas has passed through the 



Ill A MA.\r.\L or IKf.Mi: MAKIXa 

meter. This dial is dividctl into ten (-(lual parts so that the pas- 
sape of the liand over eaeli part indicates th(^ passage of one- 
tenlh of lOOO cubic feet, or 100 cuhic feet. For most meters, 
it may 1"' said of the other <Uals that the complete revolution 
of each hand indicates the passable of ten times as nmch iias lus 
one revolution of the hand of the dial of next lower denomina- 
tion (usually the one to the rifjht). The fi.ti;ure representing 
the number of cubic feet discharped during one revolution of 
the hand is written over each dial. Tims if the first dial is 

CUBIC (^J FCBT 

'<^iN X^jA X^> 

.^ 5 V V_5_V W? / 

Fig. 42. — Gas meter index rcadiiiK 79,500 cubic 
feet. 

marked "1 thousand," the second dial will be marked "10 
thousand," the third " 100 thousand," and .so on. 

The reading of the index, as illustrated in Fig. 41 is as follows: 

Reading of " 1 thousand" dial 200 cubic feet 

Reading of "10 thousand "dial 5 000 " " 

Reading of " 100 thousand" dial 30 000 " " 

Complete reading of the meter 35 200 " 

It is not necessary to WTite down separately the reading of 
each dial, but it is much shorter to set down from right to left 
the figure last passed by the hand of each dial, commencing 
with the dial of lowest denomination and then — if the dial of 
lowest denomination is marked "1 thousand" — appending 
two zeros to the resulting figures. 

If a hand is very nearl}^ over one of the figures on a dial, it 
is impossible to tell without consulting the dial of next lower 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 145 

denomination whether the figure under the hand or that just 
previously passed by the hand should be read. For example, 
in Fig. 42 the hand of the ''100 thousand" dial is over 8, and 
considering this dial alone the reading might be taken as 8; but 
it is seen that the reading of the "100 thousand" dial cannot 
have reached 8, since the hand of the dial to the right (the 
"10 thousand" dial) has not reached zero. The reading of 
the "100 thousand" dial is therefore 7, and the correct reading 
of the entire index is 79 500 cubic feet. 

To satisfy one's self that the gas company does not make 
a mistake in reading the meter, it is well for the consumer, oc- 
casionally at least, to read his meter at as nearly as possible 
the same time that the gas company reads it. Usually the gas 
company's bill will state the meter readings on the dates be- 
tween which the bill applies, so that checking meter readings 
will be easy. If the meter readings are not given on the bill, the 
consumer can determine what the amount of his bill should be 
if he knows the meter readings and the price of gas a thousand 
cubic feet. Should the consumer take one meter reading at 
the proper time and then miss the next one or two, it is obvious 
that he can still check up the gas bills by taking a reading at 
the next convenient time when the company's reader calls, cal- 
culating the cost of gas used between the dates of his readings 
and comparing this cost with the sum of the amounts of the 
bills rendered for gas between the same dates. 

Cost of gas consumed an hour in appliances. 

With only a little trouble one can determine the cost an hour 
of operating a gas light, heater, or other gas-consuming ap- 
pliance. To do this, one should have in operation the appli- 
ance in question and all other gas appliances supplied through 
this meter shut off. Then, by observing the "testing circle" 
of the meter, the time in seconds required for 1, 2, or more 
cubic feet of gas to pass should be determined. The number 
of cubic feet of gas used an hour is then determined in the fol- 
lowing manner: (1) Divide the number of cubic feet burned 
during the test by the number of seconds, thus determining the 



Mf. ,! M AXIAL or HOME MAKISd 

number of ciihic feet of fj;us used u socoiid, and (2) multiply 
the result hy 'M'A)() (the number of seconds in an hourj. 

I'Jxdin/ilc: It is oh.scrvud that with a ^as watf-r-hcatrr in oprTation, die 
meter indicates the pjussanc of 2 cuhie feet of k;us in 1 minute and 10 seconds. 
Aiiplyitifi; the al)ove rule, 2 (cul)ic feet) is divided l)y 100 (seconds) (the 
(•(luivalent of 1 minute and 40 seconds), which Rives y^^; ^Jj is irmltiphed 
l)V 3(i00, nivin^; Vo"o", <>r 72. The water-heater is, tlierefore, usinn 72 cuhic 
feet of Kas an hour. 

Knowing the cost of 1000 cubic feet of gas, one can easily calculate the 
cost an hour for gas used in the heater; for exami)le, if gas were SI for 
1000 cubic feet, the 72 cul)ic feet w'ould cost 72 timeAyjigjj of SI, or 7.2 
cents, which is the cost an hour for gas. 

Causes of high hills for gas. 

If a consumer's gas bill for a certain period greatly exceeds 
that of the previous period, it is due to one or more of the fol- 
lowing causes: 

1. An increased consumption of gas. A careful considera- 
tion of the use made of gas during the period covered l)y the 
bill will very often reveal the fact that an unusual amount of 
gas has been consumed. Baking, canning of fruit, entertain- 
ing, the coming of long winter evenings, and the like are a 
common cau.se of increased gas consumption resulting in 
larger bills than usual. Leaks in the gas pipes of the house 
may produce the same results. 

2. An error of the gas company in reading the meter or in 
office work. If the consumer reatls his own meter and checks 
the bill, the question as to whether tliis cause is operative can 
be quickly ascertained. 

3. A fast meter. If the two above causes apparently do 
not exist, the consumer will naturally consider that his meter 
is fast. 

The best procedure for the consumer who thinks his meter 
incorrect varies with the locality. Many of the larger cities 
are provided with meter-inspection departments, under the 
supervision of the city or state, and the consumer can have 
his meter tested by this department. If his meter is found to 
be fast in excess of the established tolerance, the company 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 147 

usually pays the fee for the test and refunds to the consumer 
a certain amount, depending on the magnitude of the error of 
the meter and the probable length of time that the consumer 
has been thereby overcharged. If the meter is found to be 
within the tolerance, or "slow," the consumer usually pays 
the fee (about $1), and may have to pay the gas company for 
the probable amount he has been undercharged. 

MEASURING ELECTRICITY 

How to read an electric meter. 

A view of the dials of a modern electric meter is given in 
Fig. 43. The method of reading is similar to that for the dials 




MLOWATT MOUR5 

Fig. 43. — Dial of a watthour meter. In this dial the hands are correctly 
set on their shafts. The reading is 538 kilowatt hours. 

of a gas meter as explained on page 144. The reading in Fig. 43 
is 538 kilowatt hours. In taking down these figures one should 
read the dials from right to left; that is, in the reverse of the 
usual order of writing numbers. The pointer on the dial at 
the extreme right points to 8; the number 8 is written down as 
the figure in the units place. The index of the next dial to the 
left has passed the 3, but has not reached the 4, as shown by 
the fact that the units' dial reads 8; the figure 3 is accordingly 
written in the tens' place. The index of the third dial has passed 
the 5, and this figure is to be written in the hundreds' place, 
giving 538 kilowatt hours as the reading of the meter, since the 
index of the dial at the extreme left has not reached the figure 1. 
If the index hand of the second dial in Fig. 43 be turned 
slightly so as to point to, or even slightly past, the figure 4, it 
becomes more difficult to read the meter correctly, as a hasty 



14S 



.1 MAXIM, or lloMi: MM<I.\(; 



inspect ion may result in tlic nadin;^ hciiin made as I'liH kilo- 
watt hours. However, tlic index (jf tlie units' dial standing; (jn 
the figure 8 shows lliat it has not (|uito completed a revolution, 
and hence that the index of the second dial fif it is projx'rly 
set on its shaft) should he close to a division and about to reach 
it. Hence, it should he read as havin^i; passed the 3 and not 
havint!:; reached the !. A \iew of a meter dial face having; t!ic 




MLOWATT HOUR5 

Ficj. -li. — Dial of a wattliour meter. In this dial tlie hand on the second 
circle from the ri<;ht is slightly in advance of its i)ropor position on 
its shaft. The reading is the same as in Fig. 4.'?, iiamcly, 538 kilowatt 
hours, although at a glance it might be incorrectly read as 548 kilo- 
watt hours. 

second index to the; left slightly displaced in this way is shown 
in Fig. 44. 

WluMi one dial hand points to 9, special care must be taken 
that the dial hand of the next higher dial is not read too high, 
as it may appear to have reached the next number, but will 
not have done so until the dial hand at 9 has come to 0. A sim- 
ple illustration will make this clear. If the hour hand of a clock 
points to 10, as closely as can be read, and if the clock had no 
minute hand, the time would be read as 10 o'clock. If the min- 
ute hand, however, is pointing to the figure 11, the time is 
read as 9.55. Ten minutes later the hour hand may not have 
moved perceptibly, but the time is now read a.s 10.05. Sim- 
ilarly, in the electric meter, the reading of each dial must be 
interpreted by noting the reading of the next dial to the right. 

The dial hands on adjacent dials revolve in opposite direc- 
tions; therefore, a I'eading should always be checked after being 
wiitten down, as it is easy to mistake the direction of rotation. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 149 

Checking the wdtthour meter. 

The electric meter may be checked approximately by the 
householder without the use of electrical instruments. For this 
purpose it is only necessary to note the reading of the meter, 
then turn on a number of lamps and note the time in hours re- 
quired to cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad- 
vance one division. It is necessary to use lamps which are rated 
in watts, as is done with most incandescent lamps now made. 
If the meter is modern, it will have a dial marked "kilowatt 
hours," and one division on the dial farthest to the right is 
a kilowatt hour, which means 1000 watt hours. For example, if 
10 lamps, each marked 25 watts, are lighted at a given time, 
the rate of using electrical energy is 10x25 =250 watts. In 4 
hours these lamps will use 4x250=1000 watt hours, and this 
should cause the index of the dial farthest to the right to ad- 
vance one division. As it is not possible to read a single division 
accurately, the lamps may be allowed to run until the index has 
moved over several divisions. If more lamps can be turned on, 
or larger lamps used, the time required for the test will be re- 
duced. 

The preceding test is approximate but will settle the question 
of whether any large error exists in the meter. To make an ac- 
curate test requires portable watt hour meters or other electrical 
apparatus which is suitable for use only by meter inspectors. 

It is desirable for the householder to read the meter at the 
time it is read by the meter man, and to keep a record of the 
readings and the dates, in order to have the means of checking 
the bill rendered by the company. 

When the bill for electric current seems unduly high, the meter 
is often first suspected; in reality it is usually the last thing to 
blame. Some of the reasons for higher bills are as follows : 

1. Cloudy or rainy weather, requiring use of hght in daylight 
hours. 

2. Additional lamps may have been installed, or small lamps 
may have been replaced by larger ones. 

3. Old dim lamps may be in use; in order to secure sufficient 
illumination more of them must be lighted than would be nee- 



I.")!) A MAM AL or HOME MAKISC 

{'ssMiy il lamps in jj,o(»(| cimdil ion wnc n>c<l. A diui lamp 
takes pni('ticall>' as mndi < nncnt as a new (inc, an<l is very 
wasteful to use. With lamps in ^ood condition, the li^ht will 
not 1)0 efficiently produced if tlie elect lic comjjaMy allows the vol- 
tage to he low. In this connect i(jii it may he well to stat(; that 
the tungsten lamp has been imj)roved in (piality and reduced in 
price to such an extent that no customer can afford to use carbon 
lamps. Many householders cling to the use of cari)on lamps 
i)ecausc they arc usually supplied free. The folly of this course 
may i)e realized from the following statement: The cost of a 
lamp is reckoned in cents, but the cost of the energy to operate 
it during its life is a matter of dollars. The energy cost for a 
tungsten lamp is only about one-third that of the carbon lamp. 

4. Lamps are sometimes left burning for days in attics, 
closets, and other out-of-the-way places. 

5. Electric laundry irons, toasters, or other heating devices 
may have been placed in service or used more than in former 
months. IMotor-driven devices may have been installed. Many 
devices which are operated through flexible cord from a lamp 
socket take very much more power than any lamp which would 
be used in the household. If is often erroneously believed that 
because such devices can be operated from a socket they require 
no more power than a lamp. The extent of this error may be 
realized from the statement that a six-pound laundry iron takes 
as much power as twenty tungsten lamps of about 20 candle- 
power each. 

6. Defective wiring may allow current to flow when no lights 
or other devices are in use. 

7. When electric elevators or electrically driven machinery is 
used and not properly oiled and cared for, excessive friction 
may result, with a corresponding waste of power and increase 
in the bill for electric current. 

8. An eri'or may be made by the company's meter reader, so 
that the bill rendered is too high or too low. If it is too high, the 
bill for the following month will be low by the same amount, if 
the meter is then read correctly, so that the consumer will not 
usually lose anything in the end. When a mininmm monthly 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 151 



charge is made by the company, the consumer may lose. Hence, 
if an error has apparently been made by the meter reader, the 
company should be requested to investigate the matter and to 
render a corrected bill if an error is found. 

MEASURING WATER 

How to read a water meter. 

Meters for measuring water for domestic use are usually 
graduated in cubic feet — sometimes in gallons. One cubic foot 

r 




Fig. 45. — Ordinary form of water-meter dial. Reading 
11,867 cubic feet. 

is taken commercially as equal to 73^ gallons. Hence, to re- 
duce a meter reading in cubic feet to gallons, the number of 
cubic feet should be multiplied by 7}^. 

The ordinary form of dial is shown in Fig, 45. A special form 
of register which is more convenient to read, is known as a 
straight-line register and gives cubic feet or gallons directly. 



\'}2 A MAXIM, or HOME MAKISC 

111 Fi^- 15 J he unit is culjic fed and is plainly luarkcil on t lie dial. 
If the unit, were HJi'l^'i'^, I'lt' method of readiri}^ would he the 
.same. The h.ands revolve around circles, each (Hvided into ten 
numhenMl divisions. The number on the outside of each circle 
indicates the nuniher of cuhic feet for one comi)letc revolution 
of the haiKJ. 'Hie ilivisions of the circles arc numhered alter- 
nately in tiic counter clockwise and clockwise direction. Thus, 
the first dial (at the bottom) is marked 10 and one division 
measures 1 cuhic foot, the second 100 and one division measures 
10 cul)i(' feet, the next is markecl 1000 and one (hvision measures 
100 cubic feet, and similar!}- for the remainder. The small dial 
at the left measuring 1 cubic foot for a complete revolution is 
disregarded in reading the meter, being used for test purposes. 
One division of a circle is equal to a complete revolution of the 
hand on the next lower circle. When a hand is between two 
figures, the lesser is to be taken. If a hand is very near a figure, 
whether that figure or the next lower is to be taken can be de- 
termined by observing the hand in the next lower circle. Unless 
the hand on this circle has reached or just passed 0, the lesser fig- 
ure is to be taken. The best method of reading is from low to 
high, that is, from right to left. For example, reading the dial 
shown in Fig. 45 and setting down the figures successively from 
right to left, there are 7 for imits' place, 6 for tens' place, 8 for 
hundreds' place, and 1 for thousands' place and for ten- 
thousands' place, or 11,867 cubic feet. 

The circles on different makes of dials may be differently lo- 
cated on the dial, but the method of reading is the same as given. 

In meters larger than those ordinarily used for household 
measurement, the lowest graduated circle, the one marked 10, 
corresponding to units' place in the reading, is sometimes omit- 
ted, the lowest circle being then the one marked 100. In this 
case the meter is read exactly as described above, and a zero 
added in the units' place. 

The dial after reading cannot be set back to zero. The record 
is continuous. The amount of water which has passed through 
the meter in a given time is, therefore, obtained by sul)tracting 
the first reading from the last. For example, if the meter were 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 153 

read the 30th day of June and again the 30th day of July, the 
June reading is to be subtracted from that taken in July. 

Using the water meter as a measuring appliance. 

The amount of water required for a particular use — for ex- 
ample, in watering a lawn — may be determined by first turning 
off all other outlets and allowing the hose to run, reading the 
meter at the beginning and end of the period and subtracting 
the first reading from the second. 

Since the meter can only register when water is passing 
through, should the hands move when all outlets are closed, 
water is being wasted through some leak. This can be most 
easily detected by observing the circle marked "one foot," re- 
ferred to above as being provided for purposes of test. 

DENSITY OF LIQUIDS 

A knowledge of the density or specific gravity of a liquid is 
usually of value in the household only as an index of some other 
physical property or quality of the liquid. For example, in the 
preparation of sirups, jellies, and other food products of similar 
nature, a measurement of specific gravity is a convenient means 
of determining when the process of evaporation or "boiling 
down" has been carried far enough. Also, the quality or fat- 
content of milk may be determined by measuring its specific 
gravity. 

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume of a 
substance to the weight of an equal volume of water. Milk has 
a specific gravity of 1.03, since the weight of any volume of 
milk is 3 per cent more than that of an equal volume of water. 
The densities given in Table IV are stated in grams to the cubic 
centimeter, and are numerically the same as specific gravity in 
terms of water at 4° C. as unity. 

Determination of specific gravity. 

The specific gravity of a liquid may be most readily deter- 
mined by means of a small glass instrument known as the hy- 
drometer. This instrument floats in the liquid to be examined 
and the specific gravity of the liquid is determined by noting the 



154 



.1 MAM A J. OF IK) ML MAKJ.\(; 



point on the stem to which the iiislruniont sinks in tho Hquid. 
Since a lloatinfi; body sinks in a Hiinid to such a i)oint that the 
weight of ihc htjuid (hsplaced hy tlic body is cfiual to the weight 
of tlie l)ody, the iiydronieter, when provi(l(;d with a suitable 
scale, inchcates directly the specific gravity of the hquid. 

Classes of hydrometers. 

IIy(h'onieters in general use may l)e divirled into three classes 
with reference to their indication: 1. Spccihc piravity hydrom- 
eters; 2. per cent hydrometers; 8. arbitrary scale hydrometers. 

Specific fi;ravity hydrometers indicate the ratio of tlie weight 
of a given volume of the substance to the weight of the same vol- 
ume of some standard substance. The standard substance is 
usually. water at a definite temperatuie. 

Per cent hydrometers indicate the percentage of a substance, 
either by weight or by volume, in a mixture or solution of the 
substance in water. 

Arbitrary scale hydrometers indicate the concentration or 
strength of a substance in terms of some arbitrarilj^ defined scale. 
Lactometers and Baum6 hydrometers are examples of this class. 

TABLE IV. — Densities of Some Household Materials 



Substance 



Air, dry 

Air (of .50 per cent humidity) 

Brine (.5 parts by weight of salt in 100 parts of 

of brine) 

Brine (25 part.s by weight of salt in 100 parts 

brine) 

Butter 



Cider vinegar 

Cream * (18 per cent butter fat) 
Cream (40 per cent ])utter fat) . . 
OasoHne 



Tempera- 


Density in 


ture in 


grams to the 


degrees 


cubic centi- 


centigrade 


meter 


20 (68° F.) 


0.001205 


20 


0.001195 


1.5 


1.035 


1.5 


1.191 




O.Sfi to 0.S7 




1 Oil! to 1.015 


20 


1.01 


20 


0.09 


20 


70 to 0.74 



* Minimum butter-fat content for cream (definition of Bureau of Chem- 
istry). 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 155 





TABLE IV.- 


-— Continued 




Substance 


Tempera- 
ture in 
degrees 

centigrade 


Density in 
grams to the 
cubic centi- 
meter 


Ice 




92 


Kerosene 

Lard 


20 


0.78 to 0.82 
92 


Linseed oil 


20 
20 
20 
15 
17.5 


92 to 93 


Milk 


1 028 to 1 032 


Olive oil 


91 


Sea water 


1 . 023 to 1 . 025 


Sirup, maple * 

Tallow 


1.32 to 1.34 
91 to 97 


Turpentine 


20 


0.86 to 0.87 



* The density of maple sirup varies from 1.32 with 35 per cent of water 
to 1.34 with 32 per cent of water. 

The hydrometer to be chosen for household use will depend 
on the purpose for which it is intended, the degree of accuracy 
required, and to some extent on the personal preference of the 
user. The specific gravity hydrometer is recommended for 
most purposes. 

For use in making sirups, preserves, and the like, an instru- 
ment indicating specific gravity in terms of water at 60° F., or 
one reading in Baume degrees will be found convenient. The 
hydrometer should have a range of about 1.00 to 1.50 in specific 
gravity or 1 to 50 in Baume degrees, and should be so graduated 
that the readings can be conveniently made. 

Use of the hydrometer. 

In using the hydrometer, a portion of the liquid whose specific 
gravity is to be measured should be placed in a glass cylinder of 
such a size that the hydrometer when placed in the cylinder will 
be free to move up and down without coming in contact with the 
walls of the vessel. 

The liquid should be well stirred. For specially accurate 
work, the temperature of the liquid should be observed by means 
of a thermometer placed directly in the liquid ; when the temper- 



I.")!; A MAX UAL or IIoMi: MAKIXG 

nlurc lias Ix-coiiic fairly coiislaiil, the rcatliii^s (tii the liydrom- 
ctci- iiia_\' Ik' tak(Mi. 

Tlic (•>■(' sIkjuUI he placed on a level with the surface of the 
li(}uicl and llie line where this surface appears to cut the stem 
of the hy(h<iiiictcr should l)e taken as the reading of the hy- 
drometer. 

In case the lifjuid is not sufficiently transparent to allow the 
scale of the hydrometer to he read through the litjuid, the read- 
inf? cannot he made as intlicated ahove. It is then necessary 
to read as accurately as possible above the surface (A the liquid. 
If the readings in a dark-colored litiuid are al\va\'s made in the 
same way, the resulting error will not be great, and successive 
readings will be comparaljle. 

Influence of temperature. 

When the temperature of a liquid changes, its specific gravity 
also changes antl the indication of a hydrometer in the lirjuid will, 
therefore, differ at different temperatures. All hydrometers 
should be marked with the temperature at which they are 
intended to be correct. 

In actual practice, how^ever, it is not always necessary that 
the hydrometer be used at its standard temperature, but if 
readings are to be compared, they must all be made at the same 
temperature. For example, it may be found by experience that 
a certain sirup has the proper consistency when cool, if the read- 
ing on the hydrometer is 1.36 at 80° F. The standard tempera- 
ture of the instrument may be 60° F., but if experience has 
shown that a certain reading of the hydrometer at some other 
temperature gives satisfactory results, it is not necessary to 
wait for the liquid to cool to the standard temperature of the 
instrument. 

KITCHEN MEASURES 

In the kitchen more accurate weights and measures are grad- 
ually coming into common use, as the units used are becoming 
better defined. Domestic science departments of schools and 
colleges are largely responsible for this advance. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 157 

The basis of the kitchen system of weights and measures is 
the standard cup, a measure holding 8 fluid ounces — that is, 
one-half liquid pint — and used to measure either dry or liquid 
commodities. One of these cups, subdivided into thirds, fourths, 
or both, should be procured, since the ordinary china cups vary 
greatly in size. A special set of spoon measures (from one- 
fourth teaspoonful up) will be found convenient, since ordinary 
spoons also vary in size. Moreover, neither the ordinary cup or 
spoon is adapted to measuring of fractions of their capacity. 

The measures of capacity used in the kitchen are based on 
the standard cup, as follows: 

3 teaspoonfuls = 1 tablespoonful = 4 drams 

4 tablespoonfuls = 3^ cupful = 2 fluid ounces 
l^ cupful = 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces 

2 gills = 1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces 

1 cupful = 8 fluid ounces = 3^ pint 

2 cupfuls = 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint 
16 fluid ounces = 1 pint 

4 cupfuls = 1 quart 

In the above all measures are level full. The equivalents 
given will permit the use of the large glass graduate for measur- 
ing liquids in cooking. 

In Tables V to VIII are given equivalents of units commonly 
used in cooking and for other household purposes. 



158 



.1 MAM AL or lln.MI-: MAKI.\(; 







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HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 159 



TABLE VI.— Equivalent Weights and Measures of Certain Foods * 



Food 



Beverages: 
Chocolate 

Cocoa 

Coffee 

Tea 

Water 

Bread stuffs: 

Bread, white 

Bread crumbs 

Crackers, graham . . 

Crackers, oyster . . . 

Crackers, soda 

Saltines 

Cereals : 

Barley, pearl 

Corn-meal, granu- 
lated 

Corn-starch 

Flour, graham 

Flour, entire wheat . 

Flour, white 

Hominy, or samp . . 

Hominy grits 

Macaroni : . . . 

Oatmeal 

Oats, rolled 

Rice 

Whole wheat 

Dairy products: 

Cheese (American) 
A. P 

Cream, 40% 

Milk 

Eggs (whole) A. P.*. . . 
Fats: 

Butter 

Lard 



Measure of 1 pound Measure of 1 ounce 



5 1/3 cups, grated 


1 square or 1/3 cup, 




grated 


4 cups 


Mcup 


5 1/3 cups 


5 1/3 tablespoons 


63^ cups 


6J^ tablespoons 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 


16 slices, 14 inch thick 


1 slice, }/2 inch thick 


4 cups 


Jicup 


57 cl-ackers 


3J^ crackers 


9 2/3 cups 


2/3 cup 


49 crackers 


3+ crackers 


124 crackers 


.7 crackers 


2 1/8 cups 


2 tablespoons 


2^ cups 


2% tablespoons 


3 cups 


3 tablespoons 


4 cups 


M cup 


43^ cups 


1/3 cup 


4 cups 


Mcup 


2}/2 cups 


2K tablespoons 


2M-1- cups 


2M+ tablespoons 


43^ cups 


H+ cup 


3-|- cups 


3-|- tablespoons 


b]/2 cups 


b}/2, tablespoons 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 


2 1/3 cups 


2 1/3 tablespoons 


4 cups grated 


M cup grated 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 


9 


J^egg 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 


2 cups and 2 table- 




spoons 


2-\- tablespoons 



A. P. means as purchased; E. P. means edible portion. 



ICO A M.WIM. or HOME MAKlSd 

lAHIJ-; W. -donliniied 



Fowl 



( 'risen 

Oil, olivo 

Oil, Wesson 

Suet, beef 

Fruits, dried: 

Apples, A. P 

Apricots 

Curranls, A. P . . . 

Dates, A. P 

FiRs 

Prunes 

Ilaisins 

Fruits, fresh: 

Apples, A. P 

Bananas, A. P. . . 

Cranberries 

Grapes, mala<!;a . . 

Grapefruit 

Lemon juice 

Oranges 

Gelatin 

Meat: 

Bacon, A. P 

Bacon, E. P 

Nuts: 

Almonds, A. P. . . 

Almonds, E. P . . . 

Peanuts, A. P. . . . 

Peanuts, E. P. . . . 

Peanuts, butter. . 

Walnuts, A. P . . . 

Walnuts, E. P. . . . 

Sugars : 

Molasses 

Sugar, granulated 
Sugar, powdered . 
Sugar, brown .. . 



Measure of 1 pound 



6 cups or 254 nuts 
3+ cups or .3<S5 nuts 
6 cups or 220 nuts 
2 1/8 cups 

1 14 <^up? 

53^2 cups or 56 nuts 
4+ cups or 240 average 
meats 

1 3/5 cups 

2 cups 

3 cups 
3 cups 



Measure of 1 ounce 



2 cups and 2 taljle- 




spoons 


2 tablespoons 


2 cups 


2 tablesfjoons 


2 cups 


2 tablcispoons 


4 cups, ground 


V\ cui) 


7 cups 


•Zin vn\> 


59 halves 


4 halves 


3H cups 


34 cup 


G8 


4Ji 


24 


VA 


40 to 60 


3 to 4 


3 cups 


3 taljlespoons or 18 




raisins 


3 appl(>s, or 4 cups 


M apple, or 1/3 cup 


diced 


diced 


3 medium bananas 


1/6 (scant) banana 


AYz cups 


1/3 cup 


120 grapes 

1 

1 1/3 to 2 cups 


lYz grapes 


2 tablespoons 


2 to 3 




Z]/2 cups 


3H tablespoons 


30 slices 


2 slices 


40 slices 


23^ slices 



2/5 cup or 16 nuts 
1/5 cup or 24 nuts 
J^ cup or 15 nuts 
1/S cup or 40 nuts 
1 14 tablespoons 
3H nuts 

15 halves or % cup 

1 3 2 tablespoons 

2 tablespoons 

3 tablespoons 
3 tal:)lesi)oons 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 161 
TABLE Y I. —Continued 



Food 


Measure of 1 pound 


Measure of 1 ounce 


Tapioca, pearl 


2)4 cups 


1/8+ cup 


Minute 


2H cups 


23^ tablespoons 


Vegetables, dried: 


Beans, navy, A. P. . 


2-f- cups 


2 tablespoons, or 1/8 cup 


Beans, lima 


2 1/3 cups 


2+ tablespoons or 1/8+ 
cup 


Lentils, A. P 


2 1/5 cups 


2+ tablespoons 


Vegetables, fresh: 






Beets, A. P 


2 medium beets 


1/8 beet 


Cabbage, A. P 


1/3 to }/2 medium head 






or 53^ cups shredded 


% cup shredded 


Carrots, A. P 


b]/2 carrots 


1/3 carrot 


Celery, A. P 


4 bunches 


1 stalk 


Onions, A. P 


6 to 8 medium 


]/2 medium 


Parsnips, A. P 


6 medium 


1/3 parsnip 


Potatoes, A. P 


23^ medium 


23^ tablespoons, dried 


Potatoes, sweet, 






A. P 


3 medium 


1/5 potato 


Water 


2 cups 


2 tablespoons 



TABLE VII. — Approximate Measure of 1 Ounce of Certain Spices, 
Leavening Agents, and Flavoring Substances (Mary F. Henry) 



Substance 


Measure of 1 ounce 


Allspice (whole) 


}/i cup 


Allspice (ground) 

Baking powder 


Mcup 

3 tablespoons 


Celery seed 


3^ tablespoons 


Cinnamon 


3% tablespoons 


Cloves (whole) 


4+ tablespoons 


Cloves (ground) 


3^ tablespoons 


Cream of tartar 


3 tablespoons 


Mustard seed 


23^ tablespoons 


Mustard . . 


4 5/8 tablespoons 


Pepper (whole) 


4 tablespoons 


Pepper (ground) 


4 1/3 tablespoons 


Salt 


1^ tablespoons 


Soda 


23^ tablespoons 


Vanilla 


2 tablespoons 



1()2 



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HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 163 



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HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 165 



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.1 MAMAL OF llOMl-: MAKlSd 



TAHI.KS OF WEIGHTS AND MKASIRES 



A pothecarira' Fluid Measure: 



Apothecaries' Weight: 



(Ml iiiiniiiiM u I fluid (Iriiiii 

S lliiiil ilruniH = I Muid ouiiri- 

l)j lliini otiiiccM = 1 li<|iiiil itiiil 
8 li(|ui(l piiitH = 1 Kiillun 

(lirilmh iiKiiuturc-d diflcT from above) 



Avoirdupois Weiylit: 

27 \\ Kraiiw 
ll> drams 
10 ouiicu.s 
25 poundM 

28 pounds 

4 quarters 



20 ((ruins 
'.\ Krrupli's 
K drums 

\2 ounces 



"^ 1 scruple 
= 1 drum 
= 1 ounce 
= 1 ixjund 



= 1 dram 

= 1 ounce 

= 1 pound 

= 1 short quarter 

= 1 long quarter 

= 1 hundredweight 
20 hundredweight = 1 ton {^h-'^to" ^ ^^,^^ ^^^^ 

Circular Measure: 

CO seconds 

00 minutes 

90 degrees 
4 quadrunts 
Cubic Measure: 



short hundredweight = KX) pounds 
long liundredwcight = 112pouJld9 
2000 |K>unds 



= 1 minute 

= 1 degree 

= 1 (juadrant 

= 1 circle or circumference 



1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot 
27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard 
144 cubic inches = 1 board foot 
128 cubic feet = 1 cord 
Dry Measure: 

2 pints = 1 quart 
8 quarts = 1 peck 
4 pecks = 1 bushel 

1 barrel (for fruit, vegetables, and other dry commodities) = 
105 dry quarts 
Kitchen measures. See pages 157 and 158 
Linear Measure: 

12 inches = 1 foot 
3 feet = 1 yard 

53-12 yards = 1 rod or pole 
40 rods = 1 furlong 

8 furlongs = 1 statute mile (1700 yards, or 5280 feet) 
3 miles = 1 league 
Linear Measures (special): 

1000 mills = 1 inch 
72 points = 1 inch 
4 inches = 1 hand 
7.92 inches = 1 surveyor's link 
9 inches = 1 span 
G feet = 1 fathom 
40 yards = 1 bolt (cloth) 
10 chains = 1 furlong 
0080.20 feet = 1 nautical mile = 1 . 1510 statute miles 
Liquid Measure: 

4 gills = 1 pint 

2 pints = 1 quart 

4 quarts = 1 gallon 

31 l-^ gallons = 1 barrel 
2 barrels = 1 hogshead 
Paper Measure: 

For small papers the old meiisure is still in use: 

24 sheets = 1 quire 

20 quires = 1 ream (480 sheets) 



050 cubic inches = 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 167 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES— Conhnwed 

For papers put up in cases, bundles, or frames the following measure is now used: 
25 sheets = 1 quire 
20 quires = 1 standard ream (500 sheets) 



Sqtiare Measure: 



Surveyor's Measure: 



144 square inches = 1 square foot 



9 square feet 

SOJ-i square yards 

160 square rods 

640 acres 

36 square miles 



1 square yard 
= 1 square rod or perch 
= 1 acre 
= 1 square mile 
= 1 township (6 miles square) 



7.92 inches = 1 link (Gunter's or surveyor's) 
100 links = 1 chain ( = 60 feet) 
80 cliains = 1 mile 



Surveyor's Area Measure: 

625 square links 



Time Measure: 



Troy Weight: 



16 (square) poles 
10 square chains or IGO square rods 
640 acres 
36 square miles 



= 1 (square) pole or square rod 
= 1 square chain (surveyor's) 

= 1 acre 

= 1 square mile 

= 1 township 



60 seconds = 1 minute 
60 minutes = 1 hour 



24 hours 
7 days 

365 days 

366 days 



1 day 
= 1 week 
= 1 year 
= 1 leap year 



24 grains = 1 pennyweight 

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce 
12 ounces = 1 pound (Troy) 

Carat (for precious stones) = 200 milligrams. The carat was formerly an ambiguous 
term having many values in various countries. 

Karat (fineness of gold) = 1/24 (by weight) gold. For example, 24 karats fine = pure 
gold; 18 karats fine = 18/24 pure gold. 



INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM 

In the international metric system the fundamental unit is the meter — the unit of length. 
From this the units of capacity (liter) and of weight (gram) were derived. All other units 
are the decimal subdivisions or multiples of these. These three units are simply related; 
e. g., for all practical purposes 1 cubic decimeter equals 1 liter and 1 liter of water weighs 
1 kilogram. The metric tables are formed by combining the words "meter," "gram," and 
"liter" with the six numerical prefixes, as in the following tables: 



Prefixes 






Meaning 




Vnils 


milli- 


= 


one thousandth 


1 
1000 

1 


0.001 


"meter' 


' for length 


centi- 


— 


one hundredth 


.01 












100 

1 








deci- 


= 


one tenth 


10 


.1 






Unit 


= 


one 




1 


"gram" 


' for weight or mass 


deka- 


= 


ten 




10 






hecto- 


= 


one hundred 




100 


"liter" 


for capacity 


kilo- 


= 


one thousand 




1000 







' One meter = 39.37 inches; 1 liter = 1.0567 liquid quarts; 1 gram = 0.035 avoirdupois 
ounce. 



168 



y\ MAM AL ol' HOME MAKISC 



INTERNATIONAL METRIC SYSTEM— Con/«nu«f 



L'nila of Length 


OnUii of Capacity 


UniU of Wriijlu (<iT Mom) 


niillimotor -= 001 intlor 


Inlllilit.T = 001 


liUT 


tiiilliKnitii - 001 gmm 


ccntimt'tor = .01 


rrlililit.T = .01 




(■(■iiiiKriiiii — .01 


flfrimrlcr = .1 


<l.TilltlT -- 1 




ili-rinnitii = .1 


METER = 1 


LITER = 1 




CRAM = 1 


(li'kiiniPtiT = 10 


(lokaliHT = 10 




ili'kuKrutii = 10 


hcctomcttT = 1(X) 


hlTlolit.T = 1<M» 




lii-ctoKruill = 100 


kiloniPter = 1000 


kilolilor = lOOO 




kiloKnim = KHX) 



UNITS OF AREA 
The table of area-s is formed by squariiiK llic li-ni{tti meusurcs. aa in our common sy-wtem. 
For land measure 10 meters square is called an "ARE" (meaninK "area"). The side of 
one are is about 33 feet. The hectare id 100 meters square, and, ad its name indicates, is 
100 arcs, or about 2J^ acres. 



HOUSEHOLD MEASUREMENTS AND THEIR USE 169 





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CHAPTER VI 
HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 

BY Edith Fleming Bradford 

The business of housekeeping needs its records, not only those 
deahng directly with finances — the whence and whither of the 
income — , but those showing such facts as the quantities of 
staple supplies bought each season and the amounts i-emaining 
on hand. These records should include tested recipes, varying 
in quantity or cost from the originals, and such data as the 
comparative cost of supplies, and the time required to carry on 
different kinds of work in the routine of housekeeping. The 
fihng of correspondence helps to prevent the accumulation of 
unimportant letters and acts as a reminder that replies are due. 
It also gives latest addresses, thus replacing the address-book 
which, of necessity, shows many alterations and is frequently 
not up to date. Magazine and newspaper clippings become of 
greater value when systematically arranged than when allowed 
to accumulate in a desk drawer or when pasted in a scrapbook. 
Many housekeepers try to preserve data of this nature by mem- 
ory, dreading the thought of systematizing records to so great an 
extent. Such organization, however, may be carried out gradu- 
ally, beginning with the data most frequently used and extend- 
ing to other subjects of interest. 

The following list of subjects may suggest a classification of 
household records: (1) accounts; (2) financial papers, such as 
insurance policies; (3) inventories of furniture, linen, and the 
like, with a separate card for each type of equipment, such as 
chairs, sheets single, sheets double; (4) comparative cost of 
foods having approximately the same value in the diet; (5) 
stock of staple food supplies; (6) tested recipes; (7) dishes 
suitable for each of the three meals, those quickly prepared being 

175 



17(i .1 MAM AL ur lloMi: MAKISa 

listed separately; (8) household hints on laundry, dyeing, and 
the like; (0) storage reeord; (10) time record for certain kinds of 
household woik, when no interruptions occur, valuable not only 
to the woman who supervises the work of others, hut to the 
(»ne who tloes her own housework; (11) medical and dental 
recortl; (12) correspondence; (i:^) gift record, of special value 
to those who send many g;ifts at Christmas; (14) plans for the 
future, such as making fjardens; (15) amateur photop;raphy. 
Films may be classified according to place or subject. Prints 
may be placed with films or separately under a similar classifi- 
cation. 

HOW TO KEEP HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 

A small filing cabinet of pasteboard or wood, in which the 
information is recorded on cards arranged according to the 
classification chosen, may be used. The general headings 
should be written or printed on cards known as guides, which are 
of heavier paper than are those for the records and which have 
on their upper edge a projection which serves to call attention 
to the name of the subdivision w^ritten upon it. Both classes 
of cards should be arranged alphal^etically. 

Cards 3 by 5 inches may be used for all records, although 
they are rather small for recipes and accounts. ]\Iany house- 
keepers use a card 4 by 6 inches for recipes and one that is 
5 by 8 inches for accounts; but as far as possible the same size 
should be used in order to avoid having many filing cases. 

One cabinet of wood that will harmonize with the study desk 
or table will be found very convenient. Such a cabinet of one 
drawer, will accommodate several hundred cards. A desk, with 
a drawer adapt(xl to the purpose may be bought, or a drawer 
of suitable depth may be subdivided so that the cards will fit it. 
In buying a desk it is well to choose one in which the drawers 
may be so subdivided as to conform to the standard sizes of cards 
and papers. These sizes are 3 by 5 inches, 4 by 6 inches, 5 
by 8 inches, and 83^^ by 11 inches. The last size permits the 
filing of papers such as clippings, receipted bills, and correspond- 
ence in the manila folders generally used in offices. These 



HOUSEHOLD RECORDS Vll 

manila folders may be classified in the same way as are the cards, 
the topics treated being noted on the upper left-hand edge of 
each. The names of the classifications, if there are several, 
may be written or printed on large guides placed in front of 
each section of folders. 

HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 

The advantages of keeping household accounts include: (1) 
an accurate knowledge of the use of the family income; (2) a 
check on wasteful expenditures; (3) an encouragement to form 
a proper relationship between the various classes of expendi- 
tures; (4) an encouragement to save; (5) a protection against 
paying a bill twice; (6) a settlement of disputes. 

Equiyment. 

Equipment for keeping accounts may be of the most simple 
kind. In the kitchen there should be a hanging hook file on 
which to place delivery slips and bills to await entry in the ac- 
counts. A small pad for memoranda, to which is attached a 
pencil, is found to be a timesaver. Either a desk or a small table 
with a drawer should be provided in the study or in the living- 
room for keeping the necessary records, which include an ac- 
count book and a check book. A filing case, with compart- 
ments indexed alphabetically, serves to keep bills in order. If 
it is possible to have the best equipment, a desk with a drawer 
sufficiently large for the fifing of papers, including not only 
bills but correspondence, is desirable. 

At least some equipment is necessary in order that there may 
be a place for everything, a factor which contributes greatly 
to the satisfaction, as well as to the profit derived. 

Forms of keeping accounts. 

Accounts may be kept in book form, either bound or loose 
leaf, or on cards. The simplest method of keeping accounts 
is one that records merely receipts and expenditures, each in its 
own column, no entrj^ being made for charged items until pay- 
ment is made. For this purpose pages like form 1 (page 183) 
are good, receipts being kept on the left-hand page and ex- 



178 .1 MAMAJ. or HOME MAKISC 

IMMulilurcs on the lij^lit-liaiid pa^c. A book in wliidi the rc- 
c'CMpIs arc kept on I lie left half of tli(! pa^c and llic expenditures 
on tile ri^lit half of the same pa^j;*' iiiay he used, hut such a lKK)k 
generally does not. allow sufficient space for all details of itemi- 
zation. 8om(; jH'rsons like to use a hook with two columns at 
the li^hl-hand sid(^ of the pa^e, one column for receipts and one 
for expenditures, hut with this form more care nmst he taken 
to enter the fij^ures in the proper colunm. 

Such a record, however, gives merely \\w. total income and 
expense for any period of time without answering; such questions 
as the amount of hank balance, of cash balance, liow much has 
been paid for footl during a certain period, how the expenditure 
for food compares with that for rent, how much has been spent, 
for medical service, for wages, for recreation, for education, the 
amount owed, to what extent the family has been supj)lied 
with produce from the home farm or garden; or a (luestion 
of dietetic significance, such as liow the expense for meat and 
similar foods compares with that for fruit and vegetables. 

In order to answer such questions, the expenditures must be 
analj'zed. In the t^'pe of account shown in form 1 (page 183), 
such an analysis is difficult, and in a busy household the tune 
is lacking to accomplish it at the end of a month or a year. 
If, therefore, it is agreed that little satisfaction is to be de- 
rived from a mere list of daily expenditures, a Xypa of account 
that readily gives the desired information must be considered 
(form 2, pages 184 and 185). 

Expenditures may be divided under the headings shelter, 
food, clothing, and miscellaneous, and as many subdivisions as 
desired ma}' be used under these headings. Under shelter, for 
example, there may be rent, heat, light, wages and laundry, 
furniture and furnishings. In case the house is occupied by the 
owner, the rent column may be replaced by one in which are 
recorded such items as repairs, taxes, and insurance. The head- 
ing food may be subdivided into meat and eggs, milk and cream, 
fruits and vegetables, groceries and miscellaneous items. Under 
the heading clothing may be entered all the expenses for such 
supplies for the family, or an account may be opened for each 



HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 179 

individual. Miscellaneous will include such items as education, 
traveling expenses, medical services, allowances to children, 
recreation, and benevolence. 

In the foregoing types of accounts all cash is entered in the 
receipts column; therefore, in order to prove the accuracy of the 
record, the difference between receipts and expenditures must 
agree with the sum of the bank balance, as shown by the check- 
book, and the cash on hand. In the plan outlined in form 2 
(pages 184 and 185), the totals of the columns showing the sub- 
division of expenditures must agree with the total of the ex- 
penditures column. 

If the number of columns is too large to be accommodated on 
one page, a separate page of columns may be ruled for each of 
the divisions: cash account, charge account, produce, shelter, 
food, clothing, and miscellaneous (form 3, pages 186 to 189). 
This necessitates the entering of dates on the proper page of 
subdivisions, as well as in the cash account, the charge account, 
or the produce account. The ruling of pages in form 3 (pages 
186 to 189) will explain this matter more fully. 

As much detail as is desired may be given in the itemization 
columns. More than one item may be written on each line, 
if dates are inserted where there is a change. The charge ac- 
counts of a household are generally with so few firms that either 
of the forms shown on pages 184 and 187 may be used satis- 
factorily. If the firms with whom charge accounts are kept are 
numerous, however, it may be well to devote a separate page 
to each firm. 

If it is considered desirable to keep a separate record of the 
bank account and the cash account, another subdivision may 
be made as shown in form 3 (page 186). The advantage of 
this method is that it serves as a test of the accuracy of the bank 
book and the check book, and it a^-so shows the state of the bank 
account without reference to any other record. 

The opening entry of a cash account must be "balance on 
hand," the bank balance being shown in the deposits column, 
and the cash balance in the receipts column. Later entries will 
be as follows: 



ISO ,1 MAMM. or HOME MAKISd 

Hank deposits in tlif d('|)()sils folumii. 

\\ itlidniwals from tlio hunk in Ixttli the witlidrawals and llic rfceipts 
cohnnns. 

I{c((ipts for cuncnt use in the rccf'ipt.s coliunn. 

Kxpcndilnrcs, wlicllicr l)y {'heck or in r-iusli, in tlir- fxi>cnditijri-.s colnnin, 
as well as in the jjropcr i-olnnin on the paj^c of the siilxiivision of cxpcndiliin's. 

Goods for wliitli payment is not made, in the ri>ilit-liand column of the 
charge aecount and also <in the iJrojxT paK^ of subdivisions. 

Payment of a charned item or items in the expenditures column, and in 
the left-hand column of the charne account. In enterinsj; such itom.s, ref- 
erence should he made (o the name of the firm and the date on which the 
hill was rendered. 

Receiiit of produce, valued at current market rates, in the produce 
account and on the proper page of suhdivision.s. 

If an account such as that indicated in form 3 (pages 186 to 
189) is to be kept, a loose-leaf account book may l^e used so 
that additional sheets may be inserted where the^' are needed. 
If a bound i^ook is preferred and it is necessary to rule all the 
sheets used, the book \waiy be divided into portions, each of 
which consists of a sufficient number of pages to accommodate 
a year's records. 

To balance accounts 

It is desirable that accounts be balanced at least once each 
week in order that errors and omissions may be avoided. In 
balancing accounts, totals of all columns may be inserted in 
small pencil figures, which, if not erased, make it unnecessary to 
repeat the addition at the end of the accounting period. A test 
of the accuracy of such records is as follows : 

Deposits minus withdrawals = hank balance 

(This must agree with the check book and with the bank-book balance 

minus the checks not yet presented.) 
Receipts minus expenditures = cash on hand 

Balance in the charge accounts = amount owing 
Total of all subdivisions of expenditures = total of expenditures in the 

cash account, plus produce, plus balance in the charge account. 

To pass to a new page, the totals are entered at the foot of 
the completed page and again at the top of the new page in the 
corresponding columns, the word forward being written in the 
itemization column on each page. 



HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 181 

To close accounts. 

Accounts may be closed monthly or yearly according to 
whether it is desired to compare the records of: (1) different 
months of the same year; (2) corresponding months of different 
years; or (3) yearly totals. At the end of each accounting period, 
however, the old account should be closed by entering, preferably 
in red ink, the bank balance in the withdrawals column and the 
cash balance in the expenditures column of the cash account, 
and by then obtaining the totals of all the columns. The same 
balances should be carried forward to the deposits and the re- 
ceipts columns, respectively, of the new account, as shown in 
form 3. 

Summaries for comparison. 

Monthly or annual summaries may be arranged in the fol- 
lowing form: 

Income $ 

Expenditures : 

Food $ 

Shelter . $ 

Clothing . $ 

Miscellaneous $ 

Total $ 

Balance $ 

Produce account $ 

As an example, on pages 183 to 189 are found entries neces- 
sary to record the following facts in the three types of accounts : 

On May 1, 1916, the bank balance was $285.46 and the cash balance 
$17.64. Bought from A. B. Jones on account 6 pounds of butter at $.:35 a 
pound, $2.10; 2 bushels of potatoes at $1.00 a bushel, $2.00; 10 pounds of 
sugar at $.08 a pound, $.80. 

May 2, paid rent by check, $30.00; bought for cash from L. K. Harvey, 
3 dozen eggs at $.22 a dozen, $.66; received check for $50.00 from F. A. 
Brown for board and deposited it ; received from J. Williams, salary, $30.00, 
of which $20.00 was deposited and $10.00 retained in cash. 

May 3, paid account of May 1 with A. B. Jones, $4.90. 

May 5, bought 9 yards of dress goods at $1.25 a yard, $11.25; gathered 
garden vegetables worth $.20 for home use; paid $2.00 for magazine sub- 
scription to May 1, 1917. 



ivj .1 MAMM. or lloMi: MAKlXa 

By clicckiiin tlicsc accounts acc()i(lin(f to form ii, the fcjllcnvin^^ 
results are oljtained: 

Bank Account: 

Deposits S-'J^Kj 46 

Withdrawals 30.00 

Balance $325.40 

Cash Accou.nt: 

Uoccipts So7.64 

Expciulitiircs 4S.81 

Balance $ 8. 83 

Total Balance $334 .29 

Amount Owing . 00 

puoduce s .20 

Expenditures: 

Shelter S 30,00 

Food 5 . 76 

Clothing 11.25 

Miscellaneous: 

Education 2.00 

Total S 49.01 



HOUSEHOLD RECORDS 



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.1 MAMAL OF IIUME-MAKIXC; 































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I'JO -1 MAMAL UF llnMi:-MAKl.\(; 

Rkki;uk\( Ks 

FicdiTick, ("linstiiic. I'lir New IlousckccpiriK. lOl.i. 
Pattison, Mary. I'rinriplos of Domestic KnuincfrinK. lOlf). 
ShoalTcr, William Adam. H<)U.s<'li(iI(i Acf/)initinK and Econoaiif-'^. lUlO. 
Bradford. Edith Fleming. Household Accf)unts. Cornell Reading Course 
for the Farm Home, Bull. 110. I'JIG. 



CHAPTER VII 

HEAT AND LIGHT 

The enormous waste of fuel in the homes of this country is 
coming to claim the attention of thoughtful householders. In 
both the heating of dwellings and the cooking of food, careful 
choice of equipment, intelligent operation, and forethought in 
planning will go far toward saving one of the world's most 
valuable commodities. 

CARE OF FIRES 

A few general rules for controlling heating and cooking fires 
are as follows: 

1. To increase the amount of heat, open drafts which let air into the 
ash pit, and with soft coal and wood when fresh fuel has been added admit 
some air by draft immediately over the fire to help burn the combustible 
gases coming from the fresh fuel. For all fires burning without flame keep 
this draft closed. 

2. To decrease the an^ount of heat, close all drafts tight, being sure that 
ash-pit door and drafts particularly are tight and that the ash pit itself is 
free from air leaks; if this is not sufficient, open a check draft in the smoke 
pipe — never the one in the fire door or the door itself, as this practice is ex- 
tremely wasteful of fuel. 

3. To insure economy of fuel, see that all flues and surfaces which the 
hot gases pass on their way to the chimney are cleaned every two or three 
weeks. 

4. Be very careful in the use of the damper which closes off the smoke 
pipe, as such a damper is dangerous if closed too tight and can be left 
wide open or taken out entirely provided the ash pit is tight and the above 
directions are followed. 

5. Keep the direct draft in a cooking stove or range closed except in hot 
weather, or when starting a fire. 

RADIATION * 

Hot objects, like stoves and steam pipes, lose much of their 
heat by radiation, and the blacker the object the more it will 

* From U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55. 
191 



1 •.)•_' 



.1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC 



lose; liciicc, stoves juid steam i)i|)es should l>e hlack if tlicy are 
intended to ^ive out heat, hut hot-air |)ipes and cooking uten- 
sils should he l)ri}j;ht, for example tinned or nickeled, in order to 
lose as little heat, as possihle. A slove nickel plated all over will 
jii\c out only ahout half as much heal as the same stove at the 
sMUie temperature if hlack. 

A bright nickel or aluminum kettle will cool \'erv mucli more 
slowly tiian a black kettle. On a coal or wood slove or directly 
over a coal or wood fire, a kettle is iieatcd lar}>;ely by heat radi- 
ated from the stove or fire; therefore, if the bottom is black the 
kettle will heat more rapidly than if bright. Over a p;as, gaso- 
line, or similar ])lue flame the condition of the bottom will not 
make so much dilTerence, since here most of the iieat is received 
by contact with the hot gases. The best kettle for general 
use is, therefore, one with the bottom black and the remainder 
polished, but for use on a gas stove it makes little difTerence 
whether the bottom is black or not. 



COMPARATIVE COST OF VARIOUS METHODS OF HEATING 

The ideal heating system is one that will give a uniform tem- 
perature throughout the house, if desired. Furnaces are more 
likely to produce this result than are stove^^. 

A stove seldom heats more than two rooms and often only 
one. A "drum," or radiator, for utilizing otherwise wasted 
heat, will remove the chill from an upstairs room but generally 
will not give warmth enough for a sitting-room. The care of 
several stoves is greater than that of one central plant. 

"IWBLK X. — Comparison Between Stoves and Hot-air Furnace 



Melhod of 
healing 


Inilial cost 

including in- 

slallalion 


Coal xised dur- 
ing one year 


Number oj 
rooms healed 


Temperature 


Two stoves 

Hot-air 
furnaco 


$90, and 
drums for 
upper rooms, 
$8 

SlOO to SloO 


12 to 14 tons 
of more ex- 
pensive coal 

S to 12 tons 


5 
Sto 10 


Uneven 
Fairly ovon 



HEAT AND LIGHT 193 

A hot-air system is the cheapest system to install but the 
most expensive in the amount of fuel used. 

A steam system costs about twice as much as hot-air but it 
requires less fuel. 

A hot-water system costs about three times as much as hot- 
air but requires less fuel than does either a hot-air or a steam 
system. 

FACTORS GOVERNING CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AND CONVENIENCE 
OF OPERATION * 

Climate. 

Variable weather and high winds make difficult the economi- 
cal use of fuel and convenient operation. 

Size and type of dwelling. 

Fuel consumption varies with the size of the house, the number 
of rooms heated, the thoroughness of construction, to a certain 
extent the building material, and the distribution of the radia- 
tors. 

Location of dwelling. 

A house standing alone on a hill requires much more heat than 
one in a closely built row standing in a hollow. 

Heating and ventilating system used. 

Convenience of operation of any house-heating apparatus is 
largely dependent on the system of heating and ventilation em- 
ployed. The cost of heating will also depend, but to a less de- 
gree, on the type of equipment. Fuel economy and convenience 
are against a separate fire in each room unless the house is small 
or only a small part of it is to be warmed, except in those locali- 
ties where natural gas is available at low rates or the duration 
of cold weather is brief. In comparatively few homes is any 
special provision made for removing the foul air, leakage from 
windows and doors being the usual reliance, particularly in a 
house heated by a hot-air furnace. If an indirect steam or hot- 

* Condensed from Saving Fuel in Heating a House. L. P. Breckenridge 
and S. B. Flagg. Bur. of Mines, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Tech. Paper 97. 



I'Jl .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKISG 

water syslcm is iiistallcl, means of reiiioviiin foul air are nioro 
freciueiil ly provided, eil her hy veril stacks leading; into t lie attic 
or throiif^l) the i-oof, with icf^ister oi)eniiiji;s in dilTerent rooms, or 
hy open fi;rates, the Miies for which can l>e e(iMii)ped with damj)- 
ers to rep;ulale ihc iiiii(»\al of foul aic. The system some- 
times fails to work satisfactorily if provision is not made for the 
escape of foul air from a room, as tlie fresh warm air will not con- 
tinue to flow in unless an etjual amount escai)es. The first cost 
of heatinjj; by the hot-air furnace is less than that of either the 
steam or the hot-water system, but to maintain equal tempera- 
ture conditions may require the burning of more fuel, whether 
the furnace heats air taken from outdoors or reheats air al- 
ready in the house. Evidently, reheating air will require less 
fuel, and consequently less attention to the furnace, than heat- 
ing fresii air, but the ventilation will not be good. In homes 
heated by steam or hot water, the method of heating, wiiether 
direct or indirect, and the provision, if anj', for removing foul 
air will affect the consumption of fuel, which will vary with the 
percentage of the total radiation that is indirect and with the 
amount of warm air i-emoved through vent stacks or grates. 
A furnace-heating system maintains a less even tem|)erature 
l)ecause less heat is stored in it. In this respect, hot-water 
heating has a distinct advantage over both steam and hot air 
l)ecausc the large quantity of water in the boiler, pipes, and 
radiators can maintain the temperature throughout the house 
for a considerable time after the fire dies down. In addition, 
the maintenance of an even temperature in mild weather is 
easier with the hot-water system because the temperature of 
the water in the radiators, hence the amoimt of heat given off, 
can be controlled within wide limits. 

Size of boiler and furnace. 

If to supply the necessary heat requires the consumption of 
20 pounds of fuel an hour and the lioiler or furnace is to keej) 
this up for eight hours without attention, it is evident that the 
fire pot must be large enough to hold 160 pounds of fuel, and 
in addition the quantity necessaiy to rekindle a fresh charge, 



HEAT AND LIGHT 195 

this quantity being ordinarily assumed to be 20 per cent of the 
quantity of fuel in the fire pot after the firing, or in this case 
40 pounds. Hence the fire pot must hold 200 pounds of fuel 
and still leave space for combustion. 

If anthracite coal, bituminous coal, and coke are available 
and each has such heating value that 20 pounds of it will be 
required an hour to supply heat, the fire-pot space occupied 
by an eight-hour charge of each fuel may be figured by dividing 
200 by the weight a cubic foot of each fuel, the space thus cal- 
culated being approximately 3.6 cubic feet for anthracite, 
4.0 cubic feet for bituminous coal, and 5.7 cubic feet for coke. 
Therefore, if the fire pot were designed for anthracite, it would 
hold coke enough for a firing period of approximately five hours 
instead of eight. 

Not only is the capacity of the fire pot important, but its 
depth should receive consideration. If the full-rated load is 
to be carried without attention to the fire for a minimum period 
of eight hours, the depth of the fuel-bed should be at least 
12 inches. A heater that is to burn coke should be designed 
for a greater depth — probably 24 inches — on account of the 
bulkiness of the fuel and the different combustion conditions 
required for burning it satisfactorily. In fact, one of the largest 
manufacturers of boilers for heating houses by steam or hot 
water now designs such equipment for a fuel-bed 18 inches 
deep when anthracite is to be used. 

Regarding the necessary size of fire pot, another detail that 
affects both economy and convenience of operation is the com- 
bustion space above the fuel-bed. Any unburned combustible 
gases that leave the fire pot are rapidly cooled in passing over 
the heat-absorbing surfaces between the fire pot and the smoke 
pipe, and their temperature is quickly brought below that nec- 
essary for ignition. If either anthracite coal or coke is to be 
burned, a relatively small combustion space above the fuel- 
bed will be required because combustion takes place in or close 
to the fuel-bed. If bituminous coal is to be used, however, 
more space should be provided for burning the combustible 
gases rising from the fuel-bed, or a considerable part of these 



IVMJ .1 MAM A I. OF I/O.MI-: MAKIXC 

gases will osrapo unhurnod, the fliu^ surfacos will hornnio coat eel 
with soot, and the heat losses will he iar^e. 

Aiiotliei- iiiiporlant detail, if ititumiiioiis coal is to he used, 
is the cross section for the gas passages hetween the fire i)ot 
and the smoke pipe. If the passages arc not large enough, the 
(haft may he cut down hy the accumulation of soot in the flues, 
l)ossil)Iy to such an extent that the lire will go out. Also, if 
l)ituminous coal is to he used, the flues should he of such size 
and so arranged as to invite frequent and easy cleaning. 

Ohviously, if the heater is smaller than the proper size, fire 
at shorter intervals will he necessary, drafts will have to be 
kejit open, and the temperature of the escaping gases will be 
higher than if a heater of proper size is installed — between 
375° and 475° F. in ordinary winter weather. The inconven- 
ience resulting from too large a boiler or furnace is less than 
from one under size, but careful handling will be necessarj^ to 
control the fire satisfactorily in niikl weather. 

Each heater has a particular capacity at which its efficiency 
is highest, but if the heater be properly designed, within a cer- 
tain range of capacity the efficiency will be practically equal to 
the maximum. The equipment selected should 1k' one that dur- 
ing most of the heating season will be operated within these lim- 
its, but will take care of maximum demands for a short time. 

Kind of fuel used. 

The most desirable fuels are, as a rule, the most expensive. 
It may be possible to burn some of the smaller sizes of anthra- 
cite with the furnace or egg size and thus effect a saving. The 
price a ton of these smaller sizes is less in jirojiortion to their 
calorific value because they are in less demand and thej' can 
be used to advantage in banking the fire overnight or in carry- 
ing a slow fire in moderate weather. Pea coal is probably the 
best size for such use, l)ut unfortunately it and the smaller 
sizes are obtained with difficulty in many of the markets where 
the larger, or domestic, sizes are sold. 

Among the various kinds and grades of Ijituminous coal, 
the differences in fuel value and in their physical character- 



HEAT AND LIGHT 197 

istics are much greater than among anthracites, and for that 
reason should receive especial attention. In every locality a 
number of coals will be available and the most satisfactory 
one in any particular case will usually have to be determined 
by trial, unless the characteristics of each and the effects of 
these are known. 

Uniformity of size is a desirable characteristic, as it permits 
easier control of the fire. This is particularly true of anthracite, 
a mixture of sizes often accounting for poor results from a cer- 
tam lot of coal. Sized or screened bituminous coal may be 
bought for its greater convenience, even though its cost may 
exceed that of lump coal or run-of-mine. In some localities 
slack coal has been burned successfully, although it is believed 
that this would not ordinarily be possible because of the strong 
draft required. 

Care of furnace. 

The heater should receive regular attention, and if the de- 
mands for heat are intelligently anticipated, as they ordinarily 
can be, the house can be warmed with minimum trouble and 
fuel. When the rooms become too warm, the fire should be 
checked by stopping the admission of air under the grate and 
decreasing the draft by opening the "check damper." If, as 
often is done, the ash-pit damper or the ash-pit door be allowed 
to remain open, and the draft reduced by opening the fire door, 
the combustion of the fuel continues, although at a slower rate, 
but the cold air entering the fire door chills the heater so that 
little heat is realized from the coal. 

Sometimes the draft is so strong that the difficulty of con- 
trolling the fire is increased, especially when the demand for 
heat is small or the fire is to be banked. To facilitate control 
under such conditions, it is usually advisable to have, besides 
the check damper, a plain damper in the smoke pipe. This 
damper should fit the smoke pipe loosely and must never be en- 
tirely closed; during most of the heating season it can be kept 
partly closed, but during severe weather, when more heat is 
required, it can be opened wide. Sometimes the draft may be 



198 .1 M.\siM. or iiDMi: MAKisa 

insufTicicrit to l»uiii I lie ncccssaiA' (|u:iiitif\- oi the |)articiil;ir 
fuel used. If siicli a coiulition is always noticed iti severe 
weather, the heater may he too small, th(; smoke pipe may l>e 
choked or he poorly fitted to the iieater or to the chimney, or 
the chinin(\v may he too small or he ohstriicted hy so(jt or dehris. 

if the (haft troul)le proves to l)e due to leaky connections or 
to ol)st ructions, it can readily he corrected. If the heater or tlie 
chimney is too small, the difficulties may be lessened either by 
firinfi more frequently and keeping the fuel-bed thinner, or by 
using larger coal, or fairly uniform size, in order that the air 
may more easily flow through the fuel-bed. Conversely if the 
draft is very strong, a smaller size of coal may possibly be used 
to good advantage. Under no circumstances should the top of 
the chimney be lower than the highest part of the roof, or a 
current of air may l)c forced down the chimney and the base- 
ment be filled with smoke when the wind blows in certain 
directions. Similar trouble may be experienced if the chimney 
is not as high as an adjoining building. 

If the bottom of the asli pit is on a level with the floor, or 
only a short distance below the grates, as is ordinarily the case, 
ashes cannot be allowed to accumulate under the grates for 
more than two days, or possibly more than one day, except in 
moderate weather. 

Brightly tinned hot-air furnace pipes often lose less heat 
when bare than they do when covered with one or two laj'ers of 
asbestos paper, since the latter radiates heat so much mon^ 
readily than the bright tin as more than to balance the insulat- 
ing effect of the thin asbestos covering. Of course if the pijx's 
were originally black, the covering would l)e useful, and if 
the insulating material \vcrc thick enough ('Vs inch or more) 
it would save heat even on bright tin pipes.* 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FIRING AND CLEANING A FURNACE t 

Suggestions for firing and cleaning a furnace that apply re- 
gardless of the fuel used may be given as follows : 

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. .5.5. 

t L. P. Breckcnridgc and S. H. Flagg. U. S. Rur. Minos, Tech. Paper 97. 



HEAT AND LIGHT 199 

The fire should be attended to regularly, and not left until 
it has burned low and heat is needed throughout the house. 
Often the need can be anticipated and by attention at the proper 
time trouble can be avoided. In addition, economy of fuel 
is more likely to be obtained by fairly uniform rates of burning 
than by attempting to supply a large amount of heat in a short 
period and then suddenly checking the fire. 

The size of the coal fired should be as nearly uniform as pos- 
sible. Using coal of uneven size prevents an even flow of air 
through the fuel-bed and increases the tendency of the fire 
to burn through in spots. 

One should try to keep the fuel-bed free from air holes, as 
they cause waste of fuel and may prevent the heater from main- 
taining the desired temperature. 

Excessive shaking of the grates should be avoided and thus 
the amount of coal lost by falling into the ash pit reduced. 
Ordinarily, the shaking of the grates should be stopped as soon as 
bright particles begin to drop through or, under some conditions, 
as soon as light from the fuel-bed begins to show in the ash pit. 

When the demand for heat is urgent or the fire must be built 
up quickly, the fuel-bed must be kept uniformly thick, but not 
too thick, using the coarser part of the coal and all the draft 
available. Air will then flow freely through the entire fuel-bed 
and burn the coal at a maximum rate. Under such conditions, 
the firings should be made at frequent intervals and small 
charges used, so that the fresh fuel will only for a short time 
chill the temperature of the fire pot. When heavy firings are 
made the fresh fuel not only increases the resistance to flow of 
air through the fuel-bed, so that the rate of combustion is low- 
ered, but it acts as a cold blanket to screen the heating surface 3 
from the radiant heat of the fuel-bed. 

In mild weather it is well to leave on the grates a layer of 
ashes under the active fuel-bed. This layer will increase the 
resistance to the flow of air through the fuel-bed and facilitate 
the maintenance of the low rate of combustion required in such 
weather; also, it will cut off some of the grate surface. 

Clinkers should be kept worked out of the fuel-bed, for they 



•J(i() I MAMWI. oy //OU/.' M.\KI.\(; 

nils! iiicl I he How nl all' I liinim,li it , rlo^, t lie grilles, :in<l liiav hicak 
I lie pa lis (»r .shaking; grates. 

Ilcaliiin siirrarcs, iir Hues as llicy an; soiiiclimrs callcfl if llic 
licalcr l)(' a hoilcr, iiiiist he sucpl clean so thai l.licy will readily 
ai)sorl) heal. Soot eiits dowii the hcat-absorhiiiti po\V(;r of any 
heating suifa(;e very rapi(ll>', and, therefore, shonid not be al- 
lowed to accumulate. Asluis should not he allowed to pile 
up under the grates in the ash pit, for they will seal ofT the air 
from part of the grate surface; and may cause the grate-bars 
to be burned and warped. 

Coal as free from slate and ash as possible should be pur- 
chased. 

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FUELS 

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of various fuels 
for residence heating have been mentioned. These and some 
others are sununarized in the table on page 201: 

LIGHTING 

Although electricity is in many ways the most desirable fonn 
of artificial light, other lights may still have certain advantages. 
The most effective use of any type of light should be studied for 
both economic and hygienic reasons. 

Types of lights and their care. 

Candles. 

The use of candles is now limited almost entirely to decora- 
tive lighting. Candle light is expensive in comparison with 
other lights. 

Kerosene. 

Kerosene gives a soft light that is easy on the eyes if it is 
properly shaded l)y a slightly bluish chimney. The disadvan- 
tages of kerosene lighting are the labor of cleaning and filling 
the lamps, the odor and the vitiation of the air, and the danger 
of explosion. Following are some suggestions for th(» care of 
kerosene lamps: 



HEAT AND LIGHT 



201 



TABLE XI. — Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Fuels and of Electricity ' 



Fuel 



Wood . 



Anthracite . 



Bituminous coal 



Subbituminous coal 
and lignite. 



Peat. 
Coke. 



Oil. 



Gas 

Electricity. 



Advantages 



(a) Cleanliness, (6) cheerful fire, 
(c) quick increase of heat, (rf) 
cheap in some localities. 



(a) Cleanliness, (b) easy control 
of fire, (c) easier to realize heat 
in coal than is the case witli 
other coals, (d) steady heat. 

(a) Low price, (6) availability, 
(c) high heat value (in the best 
grades), (d) low percentage of 

inert matter (in the best grades). 

(a) Relatively low price, {b) 
availability (in some regions), 
(c) responds quickly to opening 
of drafts. 



(a) In general, the same as for 

wood. 
(a) Cleanliness, (h) responds 

quickly to opening of drafts, (<) 

fairly high heat value. 

(n) High heat value, (6) imme- 
diate increase of heat, (r) clean- 
liness, (rf) small storage space 
necessary. 

(a) Ease of control, (6) cleanli- 
ness, (c) convenience, (d) im- 
mediate increase of heat. 

(a) Every advantage 



Disadvantages 



(a) Low fuel value, (6) large stor- 
age space necessary, (c) labor in 
preparation, (d) scarcity, (e) does 
not hold fire long, (/) unsteady 
heat. 

(«) High price, (b) difficulty of ob- 
taining, (c) slower response to 
change of drafts. 

(a) Dirty, (6) smoke produced, (c) 
more attention to fire and furnace 
necessary than with anthracite. 

(a) Slakes and deteriorates on ex- 
posure to air, (b) ttikes fire spon- 
taneously in piles, (c) heat value 
generally low, (d) heat in fuel dif- 
ficult to realize, (e) fires do not 
keep well, (/) gases generated 
over fire pot sometimes burn in 
smoke pipe, causing excessive 
heating. 

(a) Low heat value, (6) bulkiness. 

((() Bulkiness, (6) liability of fire 
going out if not properly handled, 
((■) fire requires rather frequent 
attention unless fire pot is deep. 

(o) High price, (6) difficulty of safe 
storage. 



(a) High price in many places. 
(fi) High price. 



1 L. P. Breckenridge and S. B. Flagg. U. S. Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 97. 

1. Fill lamps daily if they are in use. Do not fill_them too full. 2. Keep 
the wicks low when lamps are not lighted. 3. Do not turn the wicks lojv 
when the lamps are lighted, because too little air is allowed for burning, and 
ill-smelling gases are given off. 4. Blow out a lamp by a cross-wise motion 
at the top. Do not blow into the chimney. A paper may be held at the 
top on one side and a current of air directed against it. 5. Occasionally boil 
the burners in a solution of washing-soda or in strong soapsuds. 

Acetylene, air gas, and Blau gas. 

Lishtins by acetylene, air gas, or Blau gas is fairly common 
in village and country homes. It is, however, in general more 
expensive than the gas or electric light available in larger towns. 
Acetylene gives a brilliant white light. Its greatest disadvan- 
tage is the danger of explosion from careless handling. The 
products of combustion are not given off in great amounts. 



•JO J 



.1 MAM A I , OF IKiME-MAKISC 



i;ns. 

Maiillo >lniiil(| ,il\v;i\s he used oil ^;is l)urM('rs, since tlicy 
^ivc iiuicli iiioic and a >tca(li('r liKlit for a ^ivcn amount of Ras 
than (Iocs an oju-n llanic ( Imk. Ki). The saviiiK in k^s will more 
than pay for the lanip and mantles. The tubes of droj) lights 
and stoves should l)e handled carefully in order to prevent their 
cracking and allowing gas to escape. 

Electn'citif.* 

Of electric lamps three kinds are common in household 
Inverted mantle Open flame Upright mantle 





^- = 20 CANPLEPOWtR 



Fig. 46.* — Comparison of amount of linht given by difTcrcnt gas lamps. Each 
lamp is supposed to burn ."> cubic feet an hour, costing ' n cent if gas is 
•SI .00 a 1000 cubic fcot. Note that the mantle lamp gives four or five times 
as much light as the open flame. The inverted mantle gives more light 
downward and less upwartl than the upright mantle. 

use. These are the ordinary carbon, the metallized carbon 
rtr "Uem," and the tungsten lamp. Nearly all of the last 
kind sold in this country bear the trade name "Mazda." 
All three kinds are commonly marked with the number of watts 
(power) the}' take when used at the number of volts (electrical 
pressure) also marked on the lamp. When electricity is paid 
for at a certain rate a kilowatt hour, the cost of current for any 
lamp is easily calculated. The kilowatt hour is 1000 watt hours, 
and the number of watt hours used by any electrical device is 
.sim{)ly the watts times the luimber of hours burned. For ex- 
ample, a oO-watt lamp in twenty hours uses 1,000 watt houis 
or 1 kilowatt hour; at 10 cents a kilowatt hour current for such a 
* U. S. Bur. Staiulards, Circ. 55. 



HEAT AND LIGHT 



203 



lamp costs one-half cent an hour. This is true of any 50-watt 
lamp without regard to the kind of filament it has. The amounts 
of light produced by different kinds of filaments are, however, 
decidedly different (Fig. 47) . If the voltage supplied is lower than 
the lamps are intended for, the watts taken by the lamps are 
reduced somewhat, but the light is reduced a great deal more. 
The amount of light obtained from a given amount of electric 



Gem ]amp 



Tungsten lamp 





= 20 CAHPLErPOWErR 



Fig. 47. — Comparison of amount of light given by different electric lamps. 
For comparison a consumption of 50 watts is assumed, although tungsten 
lamps are not usually made in this size. Fifty watts at 10 cents a kilo- 
watt hour costs 3^ cent an hour, and gives 12 to 16 candles in a carbon lamp 
and 40 to 45 in a tungsten lamp. All lamps give different candle-power at 
different angles. Each arrow in the figure is proportional to the candle- 
power in its direction. 

energy depends, therefore, on the voltage. Under fair conditions 
the amount of light and the corresponding cost for current (at 
10 cents a kilowatt hour) would be about as follows : 







TABLE XII 




Kind of lamp 


Candles per watt 


Cost for 1,000 

candle hours 

in cents 


Carbon 


25 to 33 


30 to 40 


Gem 

Tungsten 


About 0.40 
0.80 to 1.00 


25 
10 to 12.5 



From a 60-watt lamp, for example, the candle power obtained 
is 15 to 20 for a carbon lamp, 24 for the Gem, and 56 for the 
tungsten. 



2(11 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or HOME makixg 

Comixintlirc nisi of ninou.s (nnunun lighls * (Vlfl,. IK). 

For the |)i»)(lMcti<)ii of lij^lil ;i >irc;il v;iiicly of laiiips :ir<' 
:i\ ailalilr, :iii(| in some kinds rcni;irk:il)l(' iri|)rovciiicnts liavc 
Imcii made in the last few years. Tlicsr iniproNrnicnts liavo 
made it possible in many caso.s either to inipioNc llie linhtiiiK 
of I 111- home wilhout increasing the cost or to re(hice the cost. 

Candles ^^I^^I^^^^^^^^ZII^^^^I3 

I I 



c 



Kerosene f"lame 

Kerosene Mantle -■- 
Gas Open F'lame --■ 

Gas Mantle 

Carbon Electric — 

Gem' Electric. 

Tun^ten Electric - 



5 10 15 eo 25 50 ^5 4 
Cost ^1000 candle -hours in cents 



Fig. 48. — Relative cost of producing a given amount of 
light l)y various illuniiiKints at usual prices. Costs 
are based on the following prices: Candles, 12 cents a 
pound; kerosene, 1.5 cents a gallon; gas. SI for 1000 
cubic feet; (>lectricity 10 cents a kilowatt hour. The 
solitl lines represent cost of fuel or of current, the 
shaded [xirts the cost of the mantles and liulbs. Where 
prices are different from those given above, costs will 
be correspondingly dilTerent. 

The total economic ^ain wliicli is made po.ssihle by douhlinp; 
the efficiency of production of Hfi;ht is ahiiost incalculable. To 
consider only one item, it has been estimated b}' good author- 
ities that the liberal use of the newer lamps might reduce the 
yearly consumi)ti()n of coal in the United States by $8,000,000. 
The general tendency has l)een, however, not to reduce the 
amount of power used, but rather to use more light. The abil- 
ity to produce so much more light without increasing the cost 
has encouraged the development of methods of lighting in 
which attention is given primarily to artistic appearance and 

* V. S. Bur. Staiulanls, Circ. 5'). 



HEAT AND LIGHT • 205 

to the comfort of the user rather than to getting as much Ught 
as possible out of a fixture. 

The cost of hghting by any method depends to some extent 
on local conditions, and the statements of cost given below will 
apply only approximately in any particular case. The cost 
will naturally depend on the candle power of lamps used and 
the time the lamps burn. In order to make comparisons be- 
tween different kinds of lamps, it is convenient to consider a 
definite amount of lighting, which is obtained by multiplying 
the candle power of the lamps burned by the number of hours 
they burn. For example, 1,000 candle-hours of lighting may 
be obtained l)y burning a 10-candle lamp 100 hours or a 50- 
candle lamp 20 hours, but if the lamps are of the same kind 
the cost will be about the same. Calculations of the cost of 
producing 1,000 candle-hours by different lamps are sometimes 
useful in choosing between lamps, but of course it does not 
necessarily follow that the lamp for which this cost is lowest is 
most economical for household use. 

Methods of distributing light. 

The three methods of lighting, direct, indirect, and semi- 
indirect, are dependent for their efficiency on the type of shade 
or reflector employed. By means of reflectors, light may be 
concentrated on a small spot or spread out over a large area. 

In the direct method of lighting, the light falls or is reflected 
directly on the objects to be lighted. Although the maximum 
amount of light is furnished by this method, the disadvantages 
of a light that is too brilliant and concentrated are now recog- 
nized. If a drop light is used for close work, it is advisable at 
the same time to have another light for the general illumina- 
tion of the room in order to prevent a strain on the eyes pro- 
duced by the contrast of a small brilliantly lighted area in a 
practically dark room. 

In indirect lighting all the light is reflected upward by an 
opaque reflector and returned to the room diffused generally 
from the ceiling. This method is the most comfortable for the 
eyes, but the most expensive. 



L'Oli .1 M.WI AL or IIOMI: MAKISC 

In scmi-iiulircct li^htin^; a dilTusiii^ Ixjwl allows sonio of llic 
lij!;lit to pass tliroiiffji the l)o\vi to the room and the rcinaindcr 
to he thrown up to the ceilinji. This is a good method for the 
general illumination of a room. 



CHAPTER VIII 
STOVES AND COOKERS 

Every kitchen should be equipped with a good range and 
a fireless cooker. If a coal or a wood range is used in combi- 
nation with a fireless cooker, the two should be near enough 
together to prevent much loss of heat in transferring the food 
from the range to the cooker. Sometimes the two pieces of 
equipment are combined in gas or electric stoves, the oven 
being insulated so that after it becomes thoroughly heated the 
heat may be retained long enough to cook food without the 
use of more fuel. Such stoves are more expensive than the or- 
dinary type, but the saving of fuel throughout the lifetime of 
the range would doubtless justify the increased cost in the be- 
ginning. 

A coal or wood stove which is used in winter for heating as 
well as cooking should be supplemented by a kerosene stove 
or some other kind that will help to keep the kitchen cool in 
hot weather. With a kerosene stove and a fireless cooker, the 
discomfort of a hot kitchen in summer and the waste of un- 
necessary heat may be avoided. 

Any kind of kitchen range should be as free from dirt-collect- 
ing crevices and grooves as possible. In selecting, attention 
should be paid to the possibilities of convenient and thorough 
cleaning. 

Kerosene, gas, and electric stoves are often built with the 
oven at such a height that stooping is unnecessary. There is 
no reason why such a location should not be better in every 
way than the customary one which has been borrowed from 
coal stoves. Ovens higher than the working surface of the 
stove can be heated quite as efficiently with these fuels as when 
placed below the main surface of the range. A good height for 

207 



•JOS .1 .i/.i\n/. nr iiDMi-: \i\i<i\(; 

woikiiip; siiifiiccs iti ;i kitchen is ',i\ iiiclics (paKc 1 10). This ap- 
plies fo cook stoves as \v(>Il as to tables and sinks. It may Ik* 
necessary to raise the stove on Mocks to briny; it to this lovol. 
if a ran<!;e is raised on feet, it should he at such a height that 
the floor undeiiieath can he reached easily for cleanin^i. It may 
he set Hat on the liooi-. Zinc or filing is generally placed under 
the stove, exlendinji; for 8 or 12 inches beyond the edge for 
pi'otecf ion. 

Drafts in Litchcn .sloveis. 

As soon as the fire has warmed th(> air in the stove, stove- 
pil)e, and chimney, the iieated air rises, forced up by the cooler 
air from the room and from outside. Admitting air l)eIow the 
fire box gives a draft and helps the fire to burn. Admitting 
air through the opening in the stovepipe checks therhaft by ad- 
mitting cold air and by causing less air to pass through the stove. 

The oven and the hot-water reservoir, if there is one, are 
heated )\y opening a damper which allows the hot smoke from 
the fire box to pass over the oven, imder the hot-water reser- 
\oii-, under the oven, then up behind the oven and into the 
stovepipe. 

Utensils for fuel-saving. 

Special utensils are made for use on kerosene, gas, and elec- 
t ric stoves, which are so shaped as to make it possible to cook 
two or three foods in as many utensils at one time over one 
1 )urner. 

A pressure cooker cooks food in from one-third to one- 
fourth the usual length of time. Although its initial cost is some- 
what high, the amount of fuel that may l)e saved by its use 
during a year greatly decreases this cost. 

A steamer in which several kinds of food can l)e cooked at 
I lie same time ovei' one burner saves fuel if the meal is planned 
lo that (Mid. 

S('i( ctioN of in II til. 

In general, the greater llie(lr\ weight of ;i iion-i-esinous wood, 
the more heat it will give out when imrned. W Is ha\'ing 



STOVES AND COOKERS 209 

high fuel values are osagc orange, locust, liickory, oak, apple, 
black birch, 3^ellow birch, hai'd ina]ile, beech, long-leaf pine, and 
cherry. One cord of wood such as the above, weighing when tlry 
about 3,500 to 4,000 pounds, is requiied to equal the heating 
value of one ton of coal. Of other woods, such as ash, black wal- 
nut, short-leaf pine, hemlock, red gum, sycamore, or soft maple, 
which weigh al)0ut 2,500 to 3,400 pounds a cord, it requires 
about a cord and a half to ecjual one ton of coal, while of wood 
such as Norway pine, cypress, basswood, spruce and white pine, 
two cords weighing when air dry 2,000 to 2,500 pounds each 
are" required. 

The available heat value of a cord of wood depends upon 
the extent to which it has been dried. If the wood is green 
part of the heat is taken up in evaporating the water. 
Therefore the drier the wood, the greater is the available 
heat. 

A cord of wood occupies 128 cubic feet of space. If air spaces 
between the sticks are large, if the sticks are of small diameter, 
finely split, or twisted and knotty, or if the wood is loosely 
stacked, less wood is secured in a cord. If necessary to bui-n 
wood in a stove or furnace intended for coal, it may be done 
by covering the grate partly with sheet iron in which holes 
have been punched, or with fire brick, in order to reduce the 
draft. If this is not done the wood is wasted by being con- 
sumed too fast, producing a hot fire which may damage the 
fire-box. 

Hickory is generally first choice among the non-resinous 
woods, because of the high fuel value to a unit volume of wood, 
even burning, and lasting quality. White oak is next, followed 
by black locust, hard maple, beech, birch, and "white ash." 
The white pines have a relatively low heat value, but ignite 
readily and give out a quick hot flame. 

Kerosene stove. 

Kerosene is obtained by distilling crude petroleum which con- 
sists of a variety of inflammable liquids. The more volatile it 
is, the more brilliant the light. Kerosene which can be heated 



*J1() .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKIXd 

to 1 lO*^ l'\ without yielding a vapor, will not take (ire even if 
the coiitaiiicr' is Itrokcii and oil spilled. 

'^riu' follow injj; rules for opeial iii;^; a UemscMic stoxc >liould he 
observed: Select the ItesI huiriers possible; do not blow direelly 
down on the llanie hut blow across it ; wash burners f)ccasionally 
in a little washinj^-soda and if wicks are kept clean, smoke may 
be avoided; do not leave the burners with the (lame turned 
down; ehansc the wicks when they become clogged with im- 
pui'ities; do not fill the kerosene lamp or stove near a fire or 
bui'nin^ lamp; burners should allow aii to gain access to the 
wicks to create a current to carry ofT products; air holes and 
tul)es should be free from dust and dirt; containei-s should be 
kept nearly full but if too full the oil expands with the heat and 
oozes out. 

Coal range. 

A coal range w^hich has as much insulation as possible should 
be selected to avoid waste of heat. Over 90 per cent of the heat 
generat(Hi in the ordinary kitchen range is usually lost. 

Ashes should be shaken down gently, leaving a thin layer of 
half-burned coal in the bottom of the grate, or if the coal is 
burned out, a thin layer of fresh coal may be placed upon the 
bottom of the grate. Usually a half turn of the grate is suffi- 
cient to shake down the ashes without shakiiiii out any half- 
burned coal. 

In keeping a fire in a range, it is better to add a small amount 
of coal each time and fire often. The bed of live coals should not 
be entirely covered w'ith coal but spaces should be left through 
which enough heat can pass to fire the gases as they distill off 
from the new coal ; gases that go up the chimney are lost. 

The grates should be kept clean and clear of clinkers, and 
caking of ashes and cinders at thel)ottom of th(> fire should be 
avoided. 

In kindling a fire, crumpled paper or shavings may be used, 
across which kindling is laid in a way to pi-ovide air spaces; 
a few pieces of hard wood are added to the kindling and a little 
coal, followed by more later. 



STOVES AND COOKERS 211 

Gas range. 

Gas-stove burners should be adjusted so that the blue- 
green central part of the flame is about half the height of the 
entire flame. If the flame is very long and is bright yellow in 
parts, too little air is being admitted; if short and inclined to 
make a slight roaring noise, there is too much air. In the latter 
case the flame is liable to "strike back," under which condition 
much carbon monoxide is formed. In all gas burners the vari- 
ous openings should be kept clean. The amount of air supplied 
to gas burners is usually adjusted by- moans of a small damper 
or slide to be found at the base of the burner. 

Insulated ovens. 

It is estimated that 90 per cent of heat supplied for baking 
in ovens is lost through the sides of the oven. A considerable 
saving of heat can be effected b}" insulating the oven, as is done 
in the case of most electric and some gas ovens. An ordinary 
gas oven may be fairly well insulated by means of sheet as- 
bestos cut to fit all the sides with the possible exception of the 
one occupied by the door, and attached by wires to the corners 
of the oven. 

The so-called automatic cookstove, or insulated oven, has the 
advantage over the ordinary fireless cooker of being still more eco- 
nomical in regard to heat and labor and of eliminating an addi- 
tional piece of equipment in the kitchen, because, as ordinarily 
made, it has top burners also, and hence takes the place of the 
usual range. In the commercial insulated oven, both the pre- 
liminary heating of the food and the complete cooking process are 
accomplished; consequently, both the loss of heat occasioned by 
transferring the food container from the stove to the cooker and 
the labor of this motion are eliminated. Moreover, the walls of 
the oven itself are heated and do not draw the heat from the 
food. There are now on the market insulated ovens adapted to 
the use of gas, electricity, and kerosene. The heat supply in 
some of these ovens is controlled by a dial hand that may be 
adjusted for the number of minutes for which the heat is re- 
quired, at the end of which time the heat is cut off without 



.1 M.Wr.M. or HOME M.\KI\t; 





TAHLI-: XIII.— liENKHAL 


COOKINO PnOCKHHKH 


• 


rookhifi 


Drfinituin 


^'"'' "^ " ' ' Can Miorr 

raiiw 


(1) Dry liiiil 
HniiliiiK 


Cooking Mlii-i'M or Hinal! piccci* 
<ii mini or fowl l>.v liol air 
from rcd-liol I'oal.s or flanic. 

I'an liroiliiig: cooking on 
Ii.'UKmI inrtal. 


Over bed ol hoi 
coals. 

In hciited fr.vinK 
|)an on stove. 


1 iider brrjiler of 
gas oven. 

In heated fryinR 
pan. 


(2) lioitHtiiiK 


Cooking large |jiccc.s or whole 
careas-s of meat or fowl liy hot 
air from open lire or in hot 
oven. No water adiled. 


In very liol oven. 


Inder broiler or 
in very hot f)ven. 


(3) UiikiiiK 


Cooking meal, vegetahle.s, or 
hatters an<i (loughs by hot air 
of oven. 

Baking of batters on hot pan 
or .-ilone. 


( )ven of range. 
CJriddle on tojj of 
stove. 


(i:is oven or grid- 
dle on top of burn- 
er. 


(1) ToastiiiK 


Browning siirfaec of firjur 
mixtures over fire. 


Over bed of hot 
coals or oveT heal 
from metal top. 


On heated metal 
stand over burner 
or under oven 
broiler 


(.">) nrowiiing 


Healing of flour to l»rowii in 
the first or last period of cook- 
ing of dredged meat or 
crumbed dish. 


In hot oven. 


In hot oven or 
under broiler. 


(fi) Moi.sl h.nl 
BoiliiiK 


Cooking I>y immersing in 
\v;iter which is bubbling well. 


In kettle on top 
of stove. 


In kettle ov.T 
bvirner. 


(7) SimmeriiiK 


Cooking in liot water that 
slightly bubbles but docs not 
boil. 


In kettle or pan 
on stove or in 
double boiler. 


In kettle or pan 
over small burn- 
er. In double 

lioiler. 


(S) Slcwirifi 


Long, slow cooking or sim- 
mering of meat, fish, poultry. 


In partly closed 
kettle on back of 
stove. 


In parll.v close! 
kel tie over low bur- 
ner. 


(!») i^tcaniing 


Cooking in steam above boil- 
ing water. 


In steami'r over 
kettle on stove. 


In steamer over 
kettle on burner. 


(10) Poaching 


Cooking of eggs or egg mix- 
tures in hot watcr-;-boiling as 
they are dropped into it and 
simmering to cook. 


In s.aucepan or 
iron frying pan on 
range. 


I n .saucepan or 
iron frj-ing pan 
over burner. 


(11) Braising 


Cooking of meat by a com- 
bination of baking and stew- 
ing. Bake in hot oven 15 
minutes, add water and con- 
tinue cooking. 

Cooking bv immersing in hot 
fat. 

Cooking in frying pan in 
small amount of fal, searing 
and turning often. 


( )ven. 


( )ven. 


(\2) In hentril 
fat 
Frjing 


In frving kettle 
on stove. 


In frving kettle 
over burner. 


(13) Sautfing 


In frying i)an on 
stove. 


In frying pan over 
burner. 


II) Kri<-a.s- 

SM'f'illJI 


Cooking of n.'sl. food by 
saul^'irig and then slewini;. 


ill frying pan on 
slovi'. 


In frying pan 
over burner. 


I'l) f'a.sSfTi.lr 
i-ot)kinK 


Fricasseeing in oven. Brown 
in fat in fr.ving pan, place in 
covered earthenware or gla.ss 
dish and cook several hours 
in oven. 


Top of stove and 
in slow oven. 


Top of stove and 
in slow oven. 



Anna .\I. Kast 



STOVES AND COOKERS 



213 



TAHI-K 


XIII. — General Cookino Processes — 


Cnnlinur,! 


Oil istinT 


Open fire 


Fireless cooker 


Pressure cooker 


III lic;i(cd frjint; 
p;iii. 


IJefore open fire 
in fireplace. 

Over open camp 
fire. 




(1) 


In very hot oven. 


On spits or crane 
over open fire. 




(-) 


Oven or griddle 
over burner. 


Dutch oven or on 
griddle over fire. 


By means of heat- 
ed stones. 


(3) 


On heated metal 
stand over burner. 


Held in wire rack 
before open fire. 




(4) 


In hot oven. 






(">) 


In kettle over 
burner. 


In kettle sus- 
pended over fire. 


In kettle .set on 
heated stone. 


1 •) 


In kettle or pan. 
In double boiler. 


In kettle or in 
double boiler over 
fire. 


In kettle of cook- 
er. 


(7 


In partly closed 
kettle over low 
burner. 


In closed kettle 
on heated racks 
in open fire. 


Best use of fire- 
less cooker. 


(8) 


In steamer over 
kettle on burner. 


In steamer over 
kettle on open tire. 


Pudding can, set 
in boiUng water. 


.Set iu rack above (9) 
water in pressure 
• M.f)ker. 


In saucepan or 
iron frying pan 
over burner. 






(10) 


Oven. 


Dutch oven. 


Brown first and 
put in cooker. 


Brown first and put (11) 
in cooker. 


In frying kettle 
over burner. 


In suspended fry- 
ing kettle. 

In frying pan 
over fire. 




(12) 


In frying pan over 
burner. 




(13) 


In frying pan over 
burner. 




Brown in fat and 
put in cooker. 


Brown in fat and (14) 
put in cooker. 


Top of stove and 
oven. 






(ir,) 



L'l 1 .1 MAMM. OF IIOMi: MAKISd 

luit.licr at tciilioM. A lar^ic iiisiilalcd oven, iiiodclcd somewhat 
like ail onliiiarv fi;a.s stove, is more (^xjM'iisive than is a fireless 
cooker; hut the cost of a moderate-sized raii^e witli an insii- 
hited oven is practically lli<' same as lliat of hoth a f^as ranK(! and 
a fireless cooker. This is a suhjeet worthy of investigation by 
one who is purchasinfi; new kitchen equipment. 

Fireless cookers* 

The commercial fireless cooker costs more than does tlu^ 
iiomc-matie one; on the other hand, it is likely to l)e moic 
dural)le, it seldom has anj^ absorbent material exposed to the 
odor and the steam from food, the cooking compartment can 
be kept clean more easily, and it is frequently prf)vided witii a 
ventilating valve or some such device that makes baking and 
roasting possil)le. However, the home-made fireless cooker has 
proved to he wholly satisfactory for such footls as cereals, vege- 
tables, dried fruits, custards, fowls, and certain cuts of meat. 

There is practicall}' no danger of (ii'e from a home-made 
cooker unless very hot radiators are used. Since thermometers 
are not used in the average home, and the radiators may be 
heated to an imnecessarily high temperature, it seems safest 
to advise against the use of radiators unless the insulator is not 
inflanmiable. Under no conditions can a veiy hot radiator 
above the food be safe, l)ecausc it is too near the muslin of the 
cushion. While baking is impossible without the use of radia- 
tors, there are sufficient other processes for which the home- 
made cooker may be used, to warrant the trouble and the small 
cost of making one. 

The cost of a home-made fireless cooker may range from 
about SI. 50 to $8.00 or more, depending on the materials used. 
If several sizes of ahnninum pails with clamps are bought for 
food containers, the cost may ecjual that of a small commercial 
cooker. In buying a fireless cooker the following points should 
be considered: insulation, exterior case, interior lining, cooking 
utensils, vent valve, hot plates, locks and hinges, size, and cost. 

* Canon, Helen, and Brewer, Lucile. The Fireless Cooker and Its Uses. 
Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 95. 



STOVES AND COOKERS 



215 



The following materials and utensils are needed for making 
a fireless cooker (Fig. 49) : 

For the case, or cabinet: A wooden box, a trunk, an ice box, a galvanized 
iron ash-can, a wooden candy-bucket, or the like. Any kind of case that is 
used should be provided with a tight-fitting cover. If an ordinary box is 




Fig. 49. — Diagram of a home-made fireless cooker. 
A, outer case; B, cushioQ; C, cooking com- 
partment; D, food container; E, packing 
material. 

used, it should be of sufficiently heavy material to permit the use of good 
hinges and fastenings. 

For the lining of the case: Sheet asbestos 1/8 inch thick, or heavy wrapping 
paper. 

For jiacking material: Ground cork, sawdust, excelsior, mineral wool, 
paper torn in small pieces and crumpled, powdered asbestos, shavings, straw, 
hay, wool, cotton batting, or some such non-conducting material. Mineral 
wool and powdered asbestos are both good non-conductors of heat, and 
they have the additional merit of not being inflammable; but they are 
harder to work with than are the oth'er materials. Gloves should be worn 
by the person doing the packing, and care should be taken not to allow the 
material to enter the nose and the mouth. 

For the cooking compartment: A deep bucket or kettle of agate, galvanized 
iron, or tin, of such a size that there may be a space of at least three inches 
between the case and the top, the bottom, and the sides of the bucket. 
This bucket or kettle should have a tight-fitting, flat cover. In place of a 
bucket, two thicknesses of 1/lG-inch sheet asbestos or heavy wrapping paper 



JKi .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISd 

iiiiiy Ih- sliMpcd Id f(iriii llic cooking; riiiii|i;irliMr'iil ; Iml a Itiicki-I is mitri- 
<liir:il>l(' and iiiii l>c kcpl in a inure sanitary runilili<>n. 

|'(ir till' ruukinn nlmsil: A cuvinil kitilc <ir linrkcl of a^alc or alnniiiiinn, 
iif a size snitalilc for llic anitiiMit uf fudd ordinarily (o Im' rookc-d in it. Tlic 
Micnsil slionid l»c diiralilc, and fnc from crtviccs and scams in w liicli particlrs 
of food and harmful micro-organisms may lod^c, aixl it should Im:* siii>|)li<-<l 
with a tinht-fittinn cover that can lie clamped down. Seanil(s.s aluminum 
is juThaps most commonly used for this purpo.-c Special (inle.s.s-cooker 
utensils can generally he ol)taiiied from a local hardware dealer or a firm 
that manufactures fireless cookers. 

I'or the collar to cover the jiackinn material: A |)iece of zinc, cardhoard, 
sheet asbestos, or mu.slin, of such a shape as to (it the space hetwwn the 
case and the hiiekot that serves as the cooking compartment. Zinc is k'mxI 
for this purpose because it does not tear with constant u.sc as do the other 
materials, it can bo washed, it does not rust, and it is not inllammable. 

P'or the cushion: Heavy drilling, denim, or muslin. 

For the hot plates, if desired: Flat stones, stove lids, or special soapstone or 
metal radiators. Most foods can be cooked without the use of hot plates or 
ratliators, but a higher teini)eraturo can be reached and a cooking temjx'ra- 
ture j)rolonged by their use. Hot plates should never be used unless the 
cooker is packed with non-inflammable material, such as mineral wool or 
asljestos. 

Directions for making a firclcfis cooker arc as foUorvs: 

(1) Line the case and its cover with sheet a,sbestos of 1/8 inch thicknes.s. 
(2) Pack into the bottom of the asbestos-lined case a layer at least 3 inches 
deep of whatever packing material is to bo used. (3) Place the bucket 
that is to form the cooking comiiartment on the layer of packing material 
in the bottom of the case. Pack the space between the ca.se and the cooking 
compartment closely with more of this material, filling the space to within 
14 inch from the top of the l)ucket. (4) Make a collar of any of the ma- 
terials suggested, to cover the exposed surface of the i)acking material be- 
tween the case and the cooking compartment, (o) Make a cushion of some 
of the materials suggested, which when filled with the packing material 
will be at least three inches thick, and will, as exactly as possible, fit into 
the space between the top of the cooking compartment and the top of the 
case. Cut from the material two pieces of the desired shape and size, and 
l)Ut them together with a straight strip of the desired width, with extra 
allowaiK'o for seams. 

Hr' intoiior of Iho fireless cooker should Ix^ kept absolutely 
clean. It should l)e washed, dried, and suiuied, if possible, each 
time after l)eiiis used. It should remain open for several hours 
after use, and it should never be tightly closed when not in us(\ 
The observance of these precautions prevents the food from 



STOVES AND COOKERS 217 

acquiring an unpleasant taste from odors or remnants of food 
previously cooked. 

For convenience, all equipment to be used in connection with 
the cooker, such as hot plates, hooks, racks, and cooking uten- 
sils, should be kept near the cooker. A shelf, a cupboard, or an 
improvised cabinet made from a box may serve as a convenient 
storage place. 

The cooker itself should be placed near the stove, both to 
prevent unnecessary loss of heat in transferring the food from 
the stove to the cooker and to save labor on the part of the 
worker. 

The soapstone radiators, when not in use, may be kept warm 
on the back of the stove or in the sun in order to reduce the 
length of time required to bring them to the desired temperature 
when they are needed. 

The fireless cooker, like any other piece of equipment, should 
be used intelligently in order that the best results may be ob- 
tained. As previously stated, for certain cooking processes 
and under certain conditions, it may be no more economical 
in fuel, time, or labor, than is the ordinary range; therefore, 
fireless cookery should be studied carefully by the housewife 
in order that she may discover its best applications. A few 
experiments with various kinds of foods, based on recipes 
adapted to the use of a fireless cooker, are necessary in order 
to give one the desired mastery. 

The efficiency of insulation, the quantity of food, and the 
rapidity of the transfer from the stove to the cooker, influence 
the length of time required for the cooking. The temperature 
to which the radiator is heated also determines to a certain 
extent the length of time the food should remain in the cooker. 
The period that gives the best results is more or less definite 
for each food. However, since individual tastes differ, definite 
statements in regard to the required time should be verified for 
each household. 

Care should Ix; given to correct proportions, because there is 
no opportunity for the evaporation of excess moisture in the 
cooker. 



21.^ .1 MAMM. or iioMi: M.\Ki.\(; 

Foods, such as pancakes, that fcciuirc ra{)i(l cooking ovor 
a hot fire, aic not well suited to the fireless-cooker ineUiod. 
I')is( nils iiia\- l>e haked successfully in the cooker, l)Ut, since tho 
lieat retjuired to raise tho radiators to tho proper teinpeialiiro 
will hake the biscuits in an ordinary ovon, there sooins to ho no 
justification for its use in this case. However, for foods that 
re(iuiro long cooking in order to he made more palatable and 
digestible, the tireless cooker is admirably suited. Cereals 
such as rolled oats, cracked wheat, and hominy, give excel- 
lent results when cooked in a sufficient quantity of water in 
a fireless cooker (page 506). The tough cuts of meat, which 
require long cooking at a low temperature in order to be made 
|)alatable are good when j^ropcrly cooked in a fireless cooker. 
Steamed breads and puddings are well adapted to this method. 

Hot beverages antl sauces may be set a«idc in the cooker to be 
kept hot for serving. 

The use of the fireless cooker for canning fruits is recom- 
mended by some. The juices of fruits may l)e satisfactorily 
extracted for jelly-making. Various conditions, however, de- 
termine the practicability of its use for this purpose. 

As a means of enabling one to have warm water at hand 
without keeping a fire, the fireless cooker is of use in homes 
where there is no boiler connected with the range, and especi- 
ally when the fuel used is coal or wood, which necessitates 
building a fire. 

Tai)Ics of proportions and time of cooking foods in a fireless 
cooker are given in Table XIV on page 219. 

Thermos bottles. 

Thermos bottles may be used as miniature fireless cookers 
for a small amount of cereal or other food reciuiring long, slow 
cooking. 



STOVES AND COOKERS 



219 



TABLE XIV. — Time-Table fob Use with a Fireless Cooker 



Food 



Cereals : 

Corn-meal 

Cracked wheat 

Cream-of-wheat 

Farina 

Hominy grits 

Macaroni 

Rice 

Rolled oats 

Vegetables : 

Beans, dried (soaked and 
cooked in the same water) 

Beans, string 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Onions 

Potatoes 

Dried fruits : 

Apples 

Apricots 

Peaches 

Prunes (soaked and cooked 

in the same water) 

Meats: 

Beef, boiled 

Beef, pot roast 

Chicken, stewed 

Ham, boiled 

Mutton, leg or shoulder, 
boiled 

Mutton stew 

Breads and puddings: 

Brown bread 

Cup custard, steamed 

Suet pudding 



Propor- 
tion of 
food to 
water 



1 to 6 
1 to 5 
1 to 6 
1 to 7 
1 to 5 
1 to 4 
1 to 4 
1 to 3 



1 to 4 
1 to 1 
1 to 1 
1 to 1 
1 to 1 
1 to 1 

1 to2 
1 to2 
1 to2 

1 to 2 



Minutes 


Hours 


for boiling 


in the 


on the stove 


cooker 


10 


6 or all night 


25 


8 or all night 


5 


2 or all night 


5 


2 or all night 


15 


8 or all night 


5 


2 


5 


2 


5 


3 or all night 


5 


6 or more 


2 


2 


2 


1^ 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


5 


4 or all night 


2 


4 or all night 


2 


4 or all night 


5 . 


4 or all night 


15 


3 


30 


5 


30 . 


3 


20 


7 


20 


6 


10 


4 


30 


5 




1 


30 


5 



('HAi»'ri:ii ix 

METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL 

SoiiK^ of llic mclliods of keeping foods cool that wore used by 
jiriiiiitivc people are still resorted to, sometimes with certain 
iiiodilications. The use of v^essels jxMMiiiMiiifz; evaporation, the 
niDiiiufi water (jf streams, caves or holes in the ffroiuid, i)ackin^ 
with {i;rasses, all have lent their |)rinciples to more elal)orate 
cooling methods and refrigerating systems of to-day. 

Refrigerators. 

Oi'dinary household rofri<rorators, oven of the best make with 
the best insulated walls, are by no means as etTective in saving 
ice as might be desired. Three points to consider in purchasing 
a lefrigerator are low temperature, dryness, and sanitation. The 
low temperature is obtained by ice and proper insulation. The 
ice compartment should l)e large enough to hold at least 50 
or 75 pounds of ice and should be kept filled in order to avoid 
a fluctuation in temperature which is favorable to the growth 
of micro-organisms that cause food to spoil. The location of 
the ice compartment at the side is thought to be better than 
across the entire top. The door for icing is perhaps more con- 
venient at the side than on the top. A rear icing-door can be 
made at a very small additional cost ; if the refrigerator is to be 
placed where rear icing would eliminate nuich tracking across 
floors, it is worth consitlering. 

Insulation is accomplished b}^ a dead air space between the 
outside case and mineral felt, cork, asbestos, or whatever 
insulating material is used. The wood should i)e of such a kind 
that it will not warp. There should bo no wood whore water 
can come in contact with it, since damp wood is an excellent 
place for micro-organisms to lurk. 

There should be a good circulation of air in order to keep the 

220 



METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL 221 

atmosphere dry. The cold air from around the ice should go to 
the bottom of the refrigerator and then travel to the top before 
it again goes over the ice; the inside openings, therefore, should 
be large enough at the bottom and the top to permit the free 
passage of air. 

To insure good sanitary conditions, the lining must be of such 
material that the daily cleaning will be easy, and there must be 
as few seams as possible to harbor germs. The material may 
be galvanized iron, enamel, or porcelain. There is little differ- 
ence in cost between galvanized iron and enamel; the enamel 
is somewhat easier to clean that the galvanized iron and with 
proper care wears very satisfactorily. Porcelain is perhaps in 
many ways the most desirable but it is also the most expensive. 
The drainpipe and shelves should be easily removable in order 
that they may be cleaned frequently. 

To make the best use of a refrigerator,* such foods as milk 
and meat should be placed where they will be kept coldest; 
generally near the place the air leaves the ice-chamber, or 
directly under the ice. The doors should be opened seldom and 
for as short a time as possible. The ice should not be covered 
to prevent its melting, since only by melting can it keep food 
cool. 

Iceless refrigerator. 

An iceless refrigerator depends for its efficiency on the cooling 
effect of evaporating water. An open framework of shelves 
is surrounded by a cloth kept moist by means of a large pan of 
water on the top. A good current of air to evaporate the water 
is essential. The refrigerator will work wherever the cloth will 
dry readily, but it must be kept in a shady place since a low 
temperature is the main object. A temperature of about 55° F. 
can be maintained. 

Directions for making an iceless refrigerator are as follows 
(Figs. 50, 51): 

Make a strong set of shelves open on four sides with a soUd top and 
Ijottom. Raise it on short legs. Screen this on three sides, and fit a 

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55. 



•).)•> 



A MAM M. OF HOME MAKIMI 



.screen door to file fourlli side. The eliieieiic y will lie ureafer if IIk- uliclvos 
and the liottom arc mado of roinforrod srreoniriK t*) allow fn-er eireulation 
of air. 

Cover the four sides entirely with cintoii li.innel, smooth side out, Imt- 
toniriK it closely to the frame. This may he done cjLsily liy .scwinR huttons 
on tape and tacking this tape firmly .iroiind the ujjper edne of the ea.so on 
three sides, also down each side of the framework next the door and on the 
upper and outer ed^es of the door. Allow a flap of flannel to extend past 




Fig. 50. — An iccless refrigerator. 

the outer edge of the door to he buttoned over on the framework. It 
will be necessary to unbutton and button thi.s flap when openinR the case. 
Make l)uttonh()les in the flaimel covering corresponding to the buttons on 
the ca.sc. Around the top of the covering .sew four flaps of canton flannel 
a little narrower than each side of tlie case and large enough to extend up 
over the top and ilip into the pan of water. The.se will serve as wicks to 
keep the entire .surface of the flannel moi.st. If the refrigerator is to be 
.set on the i)orch, a pan must be placed underneath the refrigerator to 
catch the water that drijis down. 

An extra flannel covering should be made for the case so that one may 
be washed each week. 



METHODS OF KEEPING FOODS COOL 



223 



It is desirable, but not essential, to paint the case with enamel paint. A 
non-rusting wire must be used for the screening. 

The following dimensions are suggested, and the amount of material 
required is indicated. 

Height: 4 feet, 8 inches. 

Base: 24 inches square. 

Space between shelves: 11 inches. 



ok |„ o 



Fig. 51. — Removable canton flannel cover for the refrigerator. 
The buttonholes are placed to correspond with the buttons 
on the framework. 

Materials: 3 yards of 24-inch opal zinc screen wire, 1 pint of flat coat 
white paint for first coat, 1 pint of white enamel paint for second coat, 
50 feet of board M x 3 inches for frame and door, 16 feet of board 1 x 12 
inches for 4 shelves, 4 feet of board 1 x 24 inches for top and bottom, 46 
feet of screen molding, 2 hinges, 1 cabinet catch, 2% dozen white china 
buttons, 10 yards of white cotton tape, nails, tacks, 13 yards of 30-inch 
canton flannel (two covers). 



Unglazed earthen vessels* 

If the air is dry, evaporation is quite rapid even when water 
is cool. Thus, when water is placed in a slightly porous un- 
glazed earthen vessel, a small amount constantly filters to the 
outside and evaporates, keeping the contents several degrees 

* U. S. Bur. Standards, Circ. 55. 



2_'l A M.WI AL oh lloMI: MAKIXd 

cooler llian \\w suiroiiii<liiiM; ;iii'- lliis device in \arioiis forms 
has been used for liuiidreds and perhajjs llioiisaiids of years. 

Firehss cooker. 

A fireless cooker (pafie 21 I j may l)e used for keepiti^f foods 
cool as well as hot, since proper insulation will keep the heat 
out as well as in. 

Thermos bottle. 

A thermos bottle is a con\-enient way of keeping; a small 
amount of food cold. A witle-mouthcd bottle can be used for 
other foods than licjuids. 



CHAPTER X 
KITCHEN UTENSILS* 

While waiting for the day when labor-saving machinery will 
be the rule instead of the exception, much can be done by selec- 
tion, arrangement, and care of kitchen equipment to make 
work easier and working hours shorter. 

Kitchen utensils should not be selected at random to clutter 
storage space. Only those articles that are used daily or at 
least weekly should be given a place in the kitchen cupboards. 
A housekeeper should weigh w^ell the usefulness and the cost 
of anj^ article that is only seldom to be taken from the shelf. 
The following considerations should be kept in mind in choosing 
kitchen utensils: Whether the utensil is all that it is adver- 
tised to be; whether it is durable, convenient to handle, well 
balanced, of good weight for its purpose; whether a ^handle or 
a bail is desirable; whether the cover is good for the purpose; 
whether the lip of the utensil is on the proper side for use; 
whether the utensil is easy to clean, free from seams and cor- 
ners, free from rolled rims, rough edges, and grooves; whether 
the utensil is of the proper size and shape for the amount and 
kind of cooking to be done; whether it is a safe receptacle for 
food. 

UTENSILS BEST ADAPTED TO VARIOUS COOKING PROCESSES 

Baking. 

Cake. — Tin, if well cared for (page 237), is the metal best 
adapted for cake-making. It does not scorch, heats quickly 
to the point at which the leavening agent in the cake becomes 
effective, and responds rapidly to necessary regulation of tem- 

* Adapted from " Choice and Care of Utensils " by Ida S. Harrington, 
Cornell Reading Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 27. 

225 



.*j»> .1 .\/.i.v/ .1/. or noMi: makj\(; 



|t( rat me (luring hakiiig. 'The round tin with a tulic in tlic cen- 
ter, known as an an^j;el-cake tin, produces the most level and 
eNcniy liaked caki', owing to the heat icai-hing the center of the 
cake as >oon as any other part, and the "pull" hetween niefal 
and hatter heing more even at every i)oint than in lins of 
other consi ruction. A plain round tin, not too deej), gives 
the next hest result; a square tin is next, wliile an oblong tin 
requires very careful regulation of heat in order to produce a 
well-baked cake. 

Bread. — Tlie choice of utensils for bread baking lies between 
tin and russia iron (a sheet iron treated by a process that orig- 
inated in Kussia, having a polished blue-black surface). Since 
bread requires a hotter oven than does cake, the russia iron 
l)an sliould have first choice; it absorl)s more heat than does 
tin, is less affected l)y high temperature, and is more durable. 

Pie. — Experiments have shown that in baking the lower 
crust of juicy pies, the best results are obtained by the use of 
granite-ware plates, that old tin plates are next in order, while 
]HMforated and wire plates come third. 

Cookies! — Cookies are ])est baked on russia iron sheets cut 
to fit the oven, with lieavy tin sheets as second choice. The 
sheets are kept in better condition and produce more delicate 
results if, instead of being gicased with l)utter or lard, they 
ai-e warmed and rubbed very lightly with parafhn. If kept 
scrupulously clean, they require no greasing. 

Cooking of meats. 

Roasts. — Koasts require a high temperature at the start in 
order to sear the surface; for this reason the best choice is a pan 
of iron or high-grade granite ware. An oval pan can be more 
carefully cleaned than one with sharp corners. There is less 
danger, therefore, if this shape is chosen, that particles of fat 
will adhere to the pan, grow^ rancid, and give an unpleasant 
odor to the utensil and a taint to the food. 

Pot roasts. — The iron kettle with tight-fitting cover, called 
also the "Dutch oven," best supplies the steady heat that a 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 227 

pot roast needs. Although a casserole may be used, or a bean 
pot with waxed paper tied tightly over the top, in either of 
these there is more evaporation than in the iron kettle and the 
roast is, therefore, drier, although just as tender. 

Meat stews. — Since in stews more liquid is added than in pot 
roasts, the casserole may well be used, or a shallow aluminum 
or graniteware stewpan with close-fitting cover, straight sides, 
and very short or loop-shaped handles. The long, slow cook- 
ing may thus be done either in the oven or on top of the stove. 
In brown stews, the meat is first sauteed in an iron pan in order 
to give the desired color and flavor. 

Stewing fruits or vegetables. 

Aluminum, granite, and enamelware are equally good for 
stewing fruits and vegetables. A wide, shallow type of sauce- 
pan, with a well-fitting cover, should be selected for fruits and 
for such vegetables as must be cooked in a small amount of 
water; while a deep saucepan, without a cover, is best for the 
cooking of strong-juiced vegetables that need a large amount of 
water. 

Sauteing. 

A rather heavy iron or steel frying pan is best adapted for 
this purpose. In a thin pan, or in one of graniteware, the fat 
passes too soon from the temperature at which it forms the de- 
sired golden-brown crust on the food to be cooked, to the point 
where it begins to decompose and becomes irritating to the di- 
gestive tract. 

Frying. 

For frying in deep fat an iron or steel frying kettle is best. 
It may be bowl-shaped, or it may have straight sides. The 
latter shape accommodates a greater number of articles at a 
time, and is more convenient for use with a wire frying basket. 
In using the bowl-shaped kettle, a long-handled skimmer may 
be more convenient for removing the food. The kettle should 
be deep, so that when it is two-thirds full of fat the food to be 
cooked will be entirely immersed. 



'J2S .1 MA MA I. or HDMi: MAhl.\(,- 

Cnndij-intiki/Kj. 

Prorcssioiial coiifi't-lioDcrs use a copper kettle connected with 
an appaiatus that makes a partial vacmiin in the kettle and 
allows the suji;ar to l)oii at a lower teinpeiatuic than the ordi- 
nary boiling point, thus lessening the danger of scorcliing the 
simar. For the home candy-maker, aluminum is the l)est sub- 
stitute for copper as a conductor of heat. Sirup lioile<l in an 
ahnninum kettle rarely scorches, and the smooth surface makes 
it easy to keep the sides wiped free from suj^ar crystals as they 
form. 

JvUij-makiruj. 

Enamel or granitcware — unless there is a defect in the enamel 
finish — makes the best utensil for jelly-making, l)ecau.se of the 
case with which it may be cleaned anfl the certainty that it 
will not be affected by the acid of fruit juices. 

SPECI.VL UTENSILS AND EQUIPMENT 

Knives. 

The assortment of knives should include a bread knife, 
butcher's knife, vegetable knife, a knife with a waved edge 
for cutting fresh bread and cake, and a spatula. The most dur- 
able knife is a hand-forged one in which the steel extends. Hat 
and unnarrowed, to the end of the handle, and is fastened to 
it by rivets of steel, copper, or brass. Strength is lost if the 
steel extends only half the length of the handle. In the chcape.st 
sotting, known as the "twang," the steel is narrowed to a point, 
pushed into the handle, and fastened by adhesion. This is the 
kind of handle that is sure to come ofT at the most inconvenient 
time. Handles of beech or birch wood wear best. Rubl)er 
handles are unpractical because they shrink, swell, and burn. 
Ivory, pearl, or bone handles are likely to blacken or become 
loosened if they are )iu1 in water. 

lujg-bcaUrs. 

Different types of egg-beaters aic needed, according to the 
consistency desired in the beaten whites. I''oi- all-round use, 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 229 

the (lover egg-beater is a good choice because it works most 
(luickly. It is operated by turning a wheel, without being 
lifted from the eggs to be beaten, and hence beats in compara- 
tivel}^ little air and gives a fine, close texture. One should be 
selected in which the cogs do not ''interfere." The balloon- 
shaped egg-whisk made of piano wire carries more air into 
the moisture, and the flat wire beater gives the airiest texture 
of all. Either of the latter types is preferable to the dover egg- 
beater for angel cake, sponge cake, or meringues where light- 
ness is more desirable than fineness of grain. 

Spoons. 

Spoons of hard wood should be used whenever possible; 
they are lighter than metal ones, do not discolor the hand, make 
less noise, and do not scratch metal surfaces. For basting 
roasts, or whenever a specially strong spoon is needed, a tinned 
iron spoon is good. Enamel spoons are not practical, as they 
are likely to bend and crack the enamel. 

Brushes. 

If brushes are used in connection with food — that is, for 
greasing pans or for brushing rolls or pastry with butter, egg, 
or milk — they must be of a kind that can be cleaned with boil- 
ing water. This is impossible if the bristles are glued in. The 
bristles should be strong and pliable (Russia or Chinese bristles 
are best) and should be bound to the handle with twine rather 
than with metal. A shaving brush of badger hair is really better 
adapted to the purpose than any brush specially designed. 

Small wooden-backed brushes are indispensable for the proper 
cleaning of vegetables, for brushing grated lemon rind from the 
grater, and for many other purposes. A small poker heated red 
hot can be used to mark on the backs of the brushes the pur- 
poses for which they are to be used. A round pitcher- or bottle- 
brush, and a long wire-handled trap-brush for the refrigerator, 
are sanitary necessities. 

Double boilers. 

A double boiler should be selected with a lower part suffi- 



2:i() .1 .\/.l.Vr.l/, OF HOME MAKlSa 

cictitly laijzic tn hoM ;i (jiiaiit il y of water that will licit soon lioil 
away. 

Paper. 

Heavy al)sorlK'n( hiowii paper, on a roller, such as is used iti 
meat markets, is a fz;reat kitchen help. In iireadiuK cutlets or 
making; croquettes, for example, the table or the rolliiif^ hoard 
may i)e covered with paper and the bread crumbs emptietl on it. 
After the croquettes are breaded, the crumbs may l)e removed 
and the same paper used for draininji the cro(|uettes when they 
arc fried. It may afterwards be folded up and burned, or ji;iven 
as a titbit to the chickens, in either case savinfj; the wasljinj»; of a 
mixture of ep;p; and l)read crumbs from the rolling board. 

Waxed paper, so essential for j)uttin{z; up lunches, lining cake 
tins, and coverinji; footl in the refrigerator, may also be obtained 
on rollers or in sheets. 

Covered paper pails, hned with waxed paper, are u.seful for 
storing dry left-overs. Paper cups, plates, and napkins are a 
welcome help in the picnic lunch or the grange supper. The 
plates may bo bought with linings, or ''insets," which may be 
replaced by clean ones for a second course. Folding paper cups 
should be a part of every school lunch or traveler's outfit. 

Fiber pails, washbowls, and tubs are useful because of their 
lightness, and with careful handling they will la.st a long time. 
Breaks in the finish may be mended by filling with a little putty, 
covering this with a piece of stout cotton cloth, and holding the 
whole together with oil paint to match the finish. 

Wooden skewers and toothpicks. 

For testing cake, wooden toothpicks are as good as broom 
straws and much cleaner. Skewers are helpful in cleaning 
corners, or, covered with several thicknesses of cheese-cloth, 
in keeping free from crj'stals the sides of the saucepan in which 
sugar is being l^oiled down. 

ARRANGEMENT OF UTENSILS 

The best-selected utensils may fail in usefulness if arranged 
awkwardly. Although ''stacking" is not the menace to kitciien 

T 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 231 

utensils that it is to tableware, it calls for many unnecessary 
motions, especially if the utensil sought is the lowest one in the 
stack. Utensils in regular use are l)est hung on small brass 
hooks in the wall, each article having a separate hook. They 
should hang bottom side out, so as to protect the inside from 
dust, and should be within easy reach of the hand. If there 
is sufficient space for some definite system of arrangement — 
whereby, for example, the largest utensils hang at the left and 
the utensils decrease in size toward the right — it will improve 
the appearance of the kitchen and make it possible to reach 
mechanically the tool needed, without expending thought on 
its whereabouts. 

Whatever is kept in storage cupboards should be so arranged 
as to be easy of access, easy to keep account of, easy to keep in 
order, and easy to note the condition of. The average cupboard 
shelves are too far apart. Shallow shelves that accommodate 
only one or two rows of utensils, easily seen and reached, will 
save many searchings (Plate XI). Covers are conveniently 
stored behind ribs of wood nailed to available wall space or to 
a cupboard door. Arrangement according to size will again be 
found a great saving of time. A canvas or leather pocket, 
divided off in a way similar to a traveler's case or shoe-bag, is 
a convenient place for the cook's knives, each one slipping into 
its own division and being safer and easier to find than when 
in a kitchen drawer filled with miscellaneous articles. 

HOW to' prepare new utensils for use 
Iron, tin, and enamelware. — It is a general custom to prepare 
a new iron utensil for use, after thorough cleaning, by rubbing 
unsalted fat over it and baking the fat in. The same treatment 
is adapted to tin, for, while it destroys its shiny new appearance, 
it protects the tin from rust and increases its capacity for hold- 
ing heat. Another way is to coat the kettle with fat outside 
and inside and allow it to stand for two days. It should then 
be cleaned in a solution of washing-soda (page 235). Enamel- 
ware is said to be protected from cracking and chipping if it 
ie well rubbed with fat before being used for the first time; the 



'2:V2 A MAXIM. (II- HOME MAKI.XC 

l.il, ln>\v('\cr, (•;iiiii()l he li;ikc(| in as with tin and iron, since it 
wduld nnt lie ali><iilic(| liiil only iMiiiicd last 1<» I lie ^lazc. 

<i'l(i.s.s. 'ruinltlcis, jais, and lainp <liinin(ys niaN' lie |(»iinli- 
ciicd l»y Ix'iii^ placed in a kettle of cold water wliicli is lnoiinht 
j^iadually lo the hoilin^ poinl. After l)eiii}i; boiled for a few 
minutes tliey should lie allowed to cool p;iii<li':»lly in the water. 

Machiiwrij. — l']pf:;-''<"ders, ice cream freezers, and other 
utensils in which there is friction between two i)arts, should be 
carefull}' oiled before l-'ein^ used, the wheels turned until the 
oil has reached every part, and all surplus oil wiped off before 
the utensil is used for food. 

HOW TO PROTECT METALS NOT IN USE 

If the house is to be closed for a time, or if for any other 
reason utensils are to be set aside, all metals should be pro- 
tected from dampness by a coating of vaseline, paraffin, or un- 
salted fat of some kind. 

M.\TERIALS AND THEIR CARE 

The advantages and disadvantages of the various materials 
used in kitchen utensils, tog<'ther with their care, may be 
sununed up as follows: 

Aluminum 
Advantages: 

1 . The uten.sils are light. 

2. They are generally seamless. 

3. They hold the heat longer than do some of the other materials, even 
though they are .somewhat slow in heating. 

4. They are durable. 

5. Food is less likelj' to burn in utensils of aluminum than in tho.se of some 
other metals, and if it does l)urn, the kettle is generally more easily cleaned. 

0. Aluminum utensils are generally made in good shapes. 

7. .Muminuin does not rust. 

8. It does ncjt chip. 

Difiadvantaaoi: 

1. .\luminum di.scolors easily. 

2. It is expensive. 

3. ,\c;id foods should not he allowed to remain for any great length of 
time in aluminum. So little aluminum is dis.soIved in cooking tlie ordinary 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 233 

acid foods, that its use for this purpose is no longer considered a bad prac- 
tice. 

General care: 

1. Scour aluminum with only mild abrasives, such as whiting or bon 
ami, since it is a soft metal and scratches easily. Steel wool may be used. 

2. Wash aluminum with neutral soap and water, since an alkaline soap 
or cleansing substance will attack the metal. Add a small amount of 
ammonia water, and polish the utensil with whiting occasionally. 

3. Remove dents with a wooden mallet. 

4. Cook foods containing weak acids, such as sour milk, tart apples, 
tomatoes, or weak vinegar in aluminum utensils to remove the tarnish that 
appears with common use. 

Special care: 

1. To remove burnt food, soak the kettle in hot water, use a wooden 
spoon instead of metal to scrape it off, or if necessary boil water in the kettle. 

2. The coarser abrasives may be used on bad stains, but the aluminum 
will be scratched. 

3. For a kettle in very bad condition, use an oxalic acid solution in the 
proportion of 4 tablespoons of oxalic acid crystals (poison) to 1 gallon of 
water. Allow the cold solution to stand in the kettle overnight, or boil 
it in the kettle for not more than five minutes. Wash the kettle thoroughly 
with soap and water before using it. Care must be exercised in hand- 
ling the solution since it is a very poisonous substance. 

Copper 
Advantages: 

1. Copper utensils are durable. 

2. They are attractive in appearance. 

3. Copper is an excellent conductor of heat. 

Disadvantages: 

1. Copper utensils are heavy. 

2. They are expensive. 

3. They are dangerous to use for cooking unless they are kept scrupu- 
lously clean. 

4. They require mvich cleaning. 

5. Acid foods must not be allowed to stand in copper. 

General care: 

1. Copper utensils should l)c kept clean by thorough washing in lint 
soapsuds. 

2. They must be kept bright, because the tarnish is easily soluble in 
weak acids and forms a i)oisonous compound. 

3. If not stained, cojipcr is best l)rightened with rottenstone or tri])()li 
and sweet oil. 



j:m a mam al (II- iiDMi. MAhi\(; 

Sprrial cnrr: 

1. Wash the iilciisil with ;i .siiliiti(»ii of wiisliinK sodii to remove Krcnsp. 

'J. Itciiiovo the tarnish from coiipcr with a weak afid, such jw oxalic, 
(•roam of tartar, vinegar, h'liioii juice, or the acid of sour milk. The acid 
should i)e completely rinsed o(T with water, atid the utensil ruhhed with 
whiting, since any acid remaining on it will cause it to tarnish the more 
quickly. 

3. Scour tlie utensil with vinegar and salt. Wash it at once and polish 
it with tripoli and sweet oil. 

4. Use rottenstonc and oil, and follow this witli dry whitinn, rottcn.st<jne, 
or tripoU. 

/i. l^se ammonia water, and wash it off thoroughly, since the compound 
formed is poi.sonous. 

Enamelware 
Adrnnldcjes: 

1. Enamelware is light. 

2. It is easily cleaned. 

3. It radiates heat readily. 

4. It is fairly durable. 

5. It is not affected by food acids. 

6. It has a clean, attractive appearance. 
Disadvantages: 

1. Enamelware must be handled almost as carefully as glass to prevent 
chipping. Granite and enamelware are made by coating sheet iron or 
steel utensils with an enamel or glaze. 

2. It does not withstand sudden changes of temperature, such as being 
placed over a direct flame that gives intense heat. 

3. It cannot be u.sed for .strong alkalis. 

4. Some cheap enamels contain lead compounds which are soluble in 
vinegar and fruit acids and give rise to the danger of lead poi.soning. A 
simple test is to let a beaten egg stand in the utensil for a few minutes. 
If it becomes discolored, Isad is probablj' present. 

General care: 

1. Wash enamelware in hot soapsuds. Clean any seams with a wooden 
toothpick or skewer. 

2. llemove ordinary stains with sapolio or Dutch cleanser. 

3. To remove food that has l)een liiuMit on, place a small amount r.f 
fat in the dish, warm it gently, and scrape off the l)urned particles. 

Special care: 

If greasy food is so badly burned on an enamelware utensil that none of 
the general methods of cleaning has any etTect, strong acids may be u.sed, 
although enamelware should not be exjiected to be proof against them. 
Place a few drops of 2o per cent sul[)huric acid in the pan and add a few 
drops of 25 per cent hydnxhloric acid. Be exceedingly careful not to 



KITCHEN UTENSILS . 235 

allow the acids to get on the hands or clothing. As soon as the acids begin 
to fume, neutralize them by adding ammonia water, pour them off, wash 
the utensil thoroughly, and flush the drainpipe well, rinsing it at last with 
boiling water. 

Iron and steel 
Advantages: 

1. Iron utensils are strong and durable. 

2. They hold heat well. 

3. They endure intense heat. 

4. They are relatively inexpensive. 

5. They become smooth with long use and are then not hard to clean. 

6. They make an even heat possible and are consequently excellent for 
frying. Russia iron is a good sheet iron for roasting and baking. 

Disadvantages: 

1. Iron utensils should not be used for cooking acid foods. 

2. They are heavy. 

3. They rust readily. 

General care: 

1. Iron utensils must be kept smooth and free from rust, which means 
that they must be kept dry. 

2. Wash them thoroughly in hot soapsuds. 

3. Use a wire dish cloth to remove food that has been burnt on. 

4. To preserve the temper of steel knives, avoid the practice of heating 
the blade on top of the stove in order to facilitate cutting fresh bread or 
cake. Allowing hot water to run over the blade accomplishes the same 
purpose without injury to the knife. 

5. Never allow the cogs of an egg-beater or ice cream freezer to be cov- 
ered with water, since they cannot be perfectly dried and therefore they 
become roughened and clogged with rust. 

Special cleaning: 

1 . To clean iron utensils thoroughly, boil them occasionally in a solution 
of washing-soda made in the proportion of 6 quarts of cold water to 1 pound 
of washing-soda, rinse them with boiling water, and dry them thoroughly 
over heat before putting them away. Use some scouring powder after 
rinsing them, if necessary. 

2. If iron utensils are to be put away for some time they should be 
coated with paraffin or unsalted fat. 

3. If rust is not too thick it may be removed by scouring the utensil, 
iron or steel, with bath brick or fine emery and rubbing it with kerosene or 
by allowing kerosene to remain on it for some time to soften the rust and 
then scouring it with bath brick. 

4. If a utensil is badly rusted, apply dilute hydrochloric acid, add am- 
monia water to neutralize the acid, wash the utensil, dry it, and oil it. 



230 .1 .l/.l.\/.iy, OF Hn.Mi: M.\KJ.\(; 

"). Scuiir steel knives witli l)alli hriek or soiiii- siiiiihir iii:iteri;il .'ifler 
lliey liave lieeii washed and rinsi-d Inil not wiped. Kest tlie knife lilade 
iiM a Ixiard, dip a moistened cork into the srourinn powder, and apply it 
In the hlaile, nil)l)inn it until the stain has disapix-ared. Kinse the knife 
thoroii(;hly and wipe it dry. 

Nirhrl 
Adi'dnliiyts: 

1. Nifkel-plated utensils are duralile. 

2. 'rh(>y are easily kept clean antl l)riKht. 
;>. They do not ru.st. 

I)i.s(i(lrtiiitn(}cx: 

1. Niekel-phited utensils are heavy. 

2. They are exponsive. 
General care: 

Wash nickel utensils in hot soapsuds and rinse them in very hot water. 
Special care: 

1. Polish nickel with a paste made of lard and whiting. 

2. Apply wliitinp; moistened with ammonia or alcohol, and [)olisli the 
utensil with soft cotton waste. 

PoUcry 
Porcelain, stoneware, and earthenware have clay for a foundation, hut 
ditTer in a])pearance and ([uality according to the fineness of the clay used, 
the kind of {^laze applied, and the length of time taken for firing. 

Advantages: 

1. Pottery utensils are excellent for slow, even cooking in even heat, 
such as slow baking. 

2. They can l)e used for both cooking and serving food and therefore save 
dishwa.shing. 

S. The good grades are nonab.sorbent. 

4. Pottery utensils are comparatively cheap. 

.5. They are relatively durable. 

G. They arc easy to clean unless they arc cracked. 

Disadvantages: 

Pottery utensils are not good for u.se over dinn't heat that is unsteady 
or intense, such as on top of a stove. 
General care: 

1. Pottery utensils should be kept exceedingly clean. 

2. If they are allowed to dry without being wiped, they should be 
rin.sed in very hot, clean water to i)revent their becoming covered witli a 
thin film which in time .sjioils the glaze. 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 237 

Silver or plated silver 
Advantages: 

1. Silver is an excellent conductor of heat. 

2. It does not tarnish readily. 
Disadvantages: 

1. Silver is too costly for ordinary use, although plated silver is used to 
a hmited extent in baking dishes and the like. 

2. It becomes tarnished if sulphur is allowed to touch it. 
General care: 

Wash silver in hot soapy water, rinse it thoroughly in clear hot water, 
and wipe it with a clean dry cloth. 
Special eare: 

1. Use a brush in cleaning raised patterns. 

2. To remove tarnish, use silver polish according to directions given 
on the package, or use whiting moistened with alcohol, ammonia water, or 
water. Rub in the paste, allow it to dry, and rub it off with a soft cloth, 
chamois skin, or tissue paper. Scald the silver. This method gives a bur- 
nished appearance. 

3. Boil the silver until the tarnish is removed, in an enamelware kettle 
containing a piece of aluminum and a solution made of 1 teaspoon of salt, 
1 teaspoon of either washing or baking soda, and 1 quart of water. Alum- 
inum kettles of any value for cooking .should not be used, since the process 
corrodes them quickly. A piece of zinc is sometimes used in place of 
aluminum, but it becomes corroded and inactive in a much shorter time. 
This method gives a satin finish rather than the burnished appearance 
obtained by an abrasive silver polish. This electrolytic method, however, 
causes no loss of metal and requires less time. It may be desirable, there- 
fore, to use the solution with aluminum as frequently as it is necessary to 
remove tarnish, and the abrasive polish occasionally to restore the bur- 
nished appearance. 

Soapstone 

Advantages: 

Soapstone gives a good even heat for cake griddles. 

Disadvantages: 

Unless it is of excellent quality and is well cared for, it is likely to be too 
absorbent to be sanitary. 

General care: 

Soapstone should be cleaned occasionally with soap and water, and 
thoroughly dried. The pores should always be kept well filled with oil. 

Tin 
Advantages: 

1. The utensils are light. 

2. They are comi)arativc-ly inexpensive. 



•_';{,S A MAMAL IJF HOME MAKI\(! 

:{. Tlicy :irc ;illr:H-tiv<' in apprarancc when new. 

I. 'I'licy iirc UDod coiKhicldrs of heat; (liis ullows ffxxl cooked in tlicni 
to l)ccoiii(> «>V('iily li('atc<l. 

5. Tl>c best grades of tinware an- not corroded by water. 

Disinlfdiiltuifs: 

1. Tin doi's not (iidurc intense heat, wliicli makes it unsuital)le for 
fryiriK and makes drying it hy setting it on the stove a liad |)raetice. 

2. Scratches expose the steel and make rust possible. 'I'herefore, metal 
.spoons and .'^crapers .should not be used on tin. 

3. Tin utensils are in (general not good for cfKikinn acid foods bccau.sc 
even the best tin is likely to Ix; acted on by hot acid. 

Ctcneral rare: 

1. Wash tinwar(> in hot suds made with neutral .soap. 

2. Use scouring powders if necessary to remove food that has IxM-n 
liurned on. 

3. Do not scour tin to restore its brightness because the tarnish acts 
as a protective coat and makes the utensil wear longer. 

Special care: 

Boil tin utensils for two or three minutes in a solution of washing-soda 
made in the projjorticn of G quarts of cold water to 1 pound of washing-soda. 

Wood 

Advantages: 

Wooden spoons arc lighter tlian metal spoons and not .so noLsy, they do 
not scratch saucepans, they do not discolor the hand, they are non- 
conductors of heat. 

Disndvanlnges: 

1. Wooden utensils may become dented, rough, or darkened. 

2. They ;ire likely to be unsanitary and to take up odors because of 
improper cleaning. 

3. If wood is not well seasoned, it cracks and splinters easily. 

General care: 

1. Fine sand is better than soap for scrubbing wood because the alkali 
in soap combines with wood to form a dark stain. 

2. Never u.sc hot water on wood. 

3. Scrul) wood with a circular motion, but rinse it and dry it witli the 
grain in order to leave the fibers fiat. 

4. Rub steak planks thoroughly with .some food oil, until the wood 
has absorbed all it will. 

Special rare: 

1. To remove dents, i)ut a wet pad of several thicknes.ses of cheese-cloth 
or mu.slin on the dent and cover it with a hot iron. The steam will raise 
the fibers of the wood nuich as it rai.ses the pile of velvet. 



KITCHEN UTENSILS 239 

2. To smooth aAvay a rough place, rub it with steel wool, following the 
grain of the wood. 

3. To restore the color of wood that has become darkened, use steel 
wool and weak hydrochloric acid. 

Ziitc or galvanized iron 
Advantages: 

1. Zinc makes a good sanitary covering for table tops. 

2. It does not become tarnished readily by action of the air. 

3. It is rust-proof. 

Disadvantages: 

1. Zinc becomes tarnished by the action of damp air and is affected by 
salt, which prevents its lasting well on the seashore. 

2. It is acted on by acids. 

3. It cannot be used for cooking utensils because it is affected by both 
acids and alkalis. 

General care: 

Wash zinc with hot suds made of mild soap. 

Special care: 

1. Kerosene dissolves a film of grease and helps to remove inclosed dirt. 

2. Bath brick may be used for food bins, in which case it would not be 
desirable to use kerosene. 

3. Scour zinc with a paste made of kerosene and baking soda, and rinse 
it thoroughly with hot water. 

4. Acids, such as vinegar, sulphuric acid in the proportion of one part of 
acid to twelve parts of water, or alum and acetic acid may be used to 
remove tarnish, but they eat into the zinc. The metal should be rinsed 
thoroughly with hot water. The tarnish is likely to appear soon again. 



('iiai»'im:i; xi 
table setting and serving 

in' I'^LOKA HosK 

When an attempt is made to lormalize any household ])rac- 
tiee, there is always the danp;er of red tape. Yet some forinah- 
ties, if based on a strong foundation of eonmion sense, make hfe 
more unselfish and delijihtful. A safe^uaid aj^ainst useless for- 
mality is to keep eonstantly in mind this faet — every p;ood rule 
should have a fi;ood reason. When the rule is being applicMJ, 
the reason should be made to appear. If in any household no 
good reason is forthcoming for the foi-mal rule imposed, the 
rule should be discarded. This is particularly true in table 
setting and serving where mere formality may have developed 
to such an extent as to obscui'e original good reasons for doing 
things. Yet most of the fundamental rules in good table set- 
ting are built on a sovnid foundation of reason. 

TABLE SETTINt; 

The table itself maj^ be bare wood or it may be clothed in 
finest linen or oilcloth. It should be clean. 

For each person, 20 to 30 inches of lengthwise space should 
be allowed, unless the table is round or square and seats only 
four or eight persons. Less than 20 inches means uncomfort- 
able crowding; more than 30 inches means difficulty in talking 
across the distance. 

Covering for the tabic 
The nnisons for covering a tal)le with tablecloth, table- 
S(iuai'e, runners, doilies, or napkins are: (1) to |)rotect the sur- 
face of th(! (able; (2) to hide the surface of the tal)le; (3) to in- 
sure fjuieter service; (4) to reflect the light; (5) to improve the 

240 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 241 

appearance of the table. If any covering is used, it should be 
clean. A rough, I)are, clean table is better than soiled, rumpled 
linen, no matter how fine and expensive. 

A tablecloth may make a more homogeneous picture than 
either doilies or runners, and its unbroken white surface re- 
flects more light than a partly bare, dark table. There is no 
other good reason, however, why doilies or runners may not 
always be used in place of the larger cloth to protect the table. 
Any rule such as using only a tablecloth at a formal dinner is 
pure form. Doilies and runners have some great advantages. 
Small pieces of linen are easy to wash, and if one is spotted it 
alone may be washed. Furthermore, the table is easier to set 
with doilies, particularly for a small family. 

To set the table 

If a tablecloth is to be used. 

A tablecloth keeps clean and unmussed longer if a heavy 
cotton or padded cloth, called a silencer or protection cloth or 
"husher," is used under it, than if it is placed next to the table. 
An old clean sheet may serve this purpose if no other cloth is 
available. The table should first be covered with the silence 
cloth, care being taken to arrange it so that it will not hang 
below the tablecloth. The tablecloth is then stretched on the 
table so that the center fold is uppermost and so that the cloth 
hangs evenly on both sides and at both ends of the table. Care 
should be taken to see that the cloth is straight. If possible to 
prevent it, a cloth should not hang over the sides and ends much 
more than 12 or 14 inches, since otherwise it will not clear the 
seats of the chairs and will spoil the appearance of the table. 
Furthermore, it is in the way at mealtime. 

If dollies are used. 

Doilies that are rectangular are better than round or square 
ones, since they give a wider space for the an-angement of 
silver and glasses on the table and are a better protection to it. 
The doilies should first be arranged at one end and on one side 
of the table. On the side one should try to space the doilies 



242 A MAM' A J. OF JKJMK MAKI.Xd 

so lluit Ihcy arc ('(lually distant from each oihcr. 'I'licii, ex- 
actly oi)positc these doilies, those to he used at the other end 
and on the othci' side of the tahie should he placed. Doilies 
should he placed so that one edge is ahout at the edge of the 
tahle. 

The individual cover. 

The place arranged for each individual at the tahlc is called 
the cover. After the cloth or doilies have heen placed, each 
individual cover should he arrangetl. It is desirahle, as a rule, 
to place at the individual cover as nmch of the silver and china 
as nia}' add to the convenience of the meal. If, for example, 
spoons are placed at the individual covers instcatl of in a holder, 
considerable confusion may be prevented at mealtime. 

Knives are placed at the i-ight of the cover with the sharp 
edge of the blade toward the plate. This is because the knife 
is usually lifted with the right hand. 

Forks are placed at the left of the cover with the tines up. 
This is because the fork is lifted in the left hand when something 
is being cut with the knife and fork. If only a fork is to be used, 
a very good reason may be found for placing it at the right of the 
plate. It is in general a good rule to try to keep a balance be- 
tween the silver on each side of the cover, since all the silver on 
one side makes a heavy-looking design. 

Spoons may be placed at the right of the knife or in front of 
the plate with handles toward the right hand. The knife and 
fork nearest the plate should be far enough apart to permit the 
largest plate used at the meal to be set between them without 
pushing them out of place. They should not Ix* spread unneces- 
sarily far ai)art. All the silver in one group should l)e compactly 
placed. 

The glass may be placed at the tip of the knife and slightly 
to the right. There is no reason why it should not be placed 
at the tip of the fork and slightly to the left if j)referred in that 
place. The butter-plate may he i)laced at the tip of the fork 
and slightly to the left. Butter-plate and glass may be made 
to change places if preferred. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 243 

The napkin may be placed at the left of the forks, at the right 
of the knives, in the center of the cover, or in front of the cover, 
according to convenience. The napkins should be so placed 
that the corners of each face the same way, if they have been 
so ironed that this is possible. 

The plate. — If a plate is set at the individual cover before the 
meal begins, it should be placed ^ to 1 inch from the edge of 
the table. This is to prevent danger of tipping through any 
thoughtless movement of the individual. 

Relation of covers. — All the glasses on one side of the table 
should be in a straight line. The same is true for butter-plates, 
silver, and napkins or other utensils. On looking down the 
table, a straight line running from the center of one utensil 
should strike the center of the next utensil of the same kind. 
This makes a well-ordered, trim table. If each side of the table 
has the same number of covers, the center of each cover on one 
side should be exactly opposite the center of the cover on the 
other side. The ends of the handles of all the silver used at the 
covers should be 3^ to % inch from the edge of the table and 
should be in a straight line. This is a basic principle of good 
design. 

General equipment. 

There is a certain amount of general equipment which must 
go on each table. This varies with the simplicity of the meal 
and with the formality of the service. As formality decreases, 
food is left to be served on the table. 

If possible, salt-containers should be allowed for each two 
persons and should be placed inconspicuously and within 
reach of each. 

If jelly or pickles are placed on the table, a dish of jelly at 
one end and at one side of the table may balance a dish of pickles 
at the other end and on the other side of the table. If spoons 
or forks are placed for serving these, they should be placed 
straight and parallel with the silver at the sides or ends of the 
table, not on the bias. 

A good general rule is not to cross any of the extra silver to 



L'l 1 .1 M.WIM. OF IIOMI: MAKIXa 

lie ibcd lor .-.('i-viii^ ;in(l never In pl;u'e it on ;i Mas line. If, for 
example, a small l)iif ter-sprea(i(''r is usi'd, it should he j)laee(l on 
the hutlcr-plale parallel lo all the other silver, or placed next 
to the other knives. The reason for strai^^hf ness is ^ood desifrn. 

As far as possible, silver for service should he arranged on the 
main tal)le or on u side tahle heforc the meal l)OKins. This silver 
may he placed on the rif^ht and left of the cover of the server 
ant! in the same way and line as the I'emainder oi the silver at 
that cover. 

If cups and saucers are put on the taljle hefore the meal, tiiey 
should he arranfjed in such a way as to facilitate the i)ourinp; of 
the hevera^e and the jiassinjj of the cups, 'i'he handles of llu; 
cuj)s should all l)e in line and in a position for the server to take 
hold of them most conveniently. Place should he left for the 
pot and for cream and sugar serv^ers, and these should ije placed 
in such a way as to facilitate service. ^J'he handle of the pot 
should he towartl tlie hand of the server. 

After the tahle is set, the chairs may he arranj^ed. They 
should he in straight rows and sufficiently far from the table 
to re(iuire hut slight moving when the persons are seated. 

Just l)efore the meal, the glasses should be filled with cold 
water, the butter may be placed on the plates, and the bread 
may be cut. 

T.\BLE SERVICE 

A few simple rules will greatly facilitate attractive and con- 
venient serving. No attempt will be made here to discuss 
service of the extremely formal type. 

To pass food 

V()(h\ should he passed at the left of the pei*son sitting at 
the 1al)le. This is because it is easier to reach across than around 
with the i-ight hand. The opposite procedure is more conven- 
ient foi- left-handcnl jxM'sons. 

W Ik II food is passed, th(> dish siioiild lie held close to the table 
with the edge of the dish slightly over the edge of the plate of 
the person to be served. This jjrevents accidents and is con- 
venient for the person served. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 245 

A (ray is not iieecssaiy for passing single vegetable dishes, 
salad bowls, or platt(!rs. In fact, safer service results if the 
sci'ving dish rests on the palm and spread fingers of the left 
hand. The hand should be protected with a folded napkin. 
This leaves the right hand free to rearrange the spoon between 
servings and to guard against possible movements of persons 
at the table. 

To place food 

In general it may be more convenient to place food from 
the right of the person served. This is because it can be 
placed by the right hand. If it is more convenient to place from 
the left, there is no reason against so doing. When a cup and 
saucer are placed, the handles of the cup and the spoon should 
be in a position most convenient for the user. 

To remove dishes 
In general it may be more convenient to remove dishes from 
the right than from the left of the person served. They may 
be removed from either side. 

To serve food carved or served at the table 

Semi-formal method. 

It is more convenient for the carver if only one plate is placed 
in front of him at a time. Hot plates should be kept on the side 
table, one set in front of the carver, and a second held in the 
left hand. The waitress should stand at the left of the carver, 
unless he prefers the opposite side. When the plate in front of 
the carver is filled, it is removed from the left with the right 
hand, and a hot plate put in place with the left hand in order 
to reduce interference with the carver. After placing the filled 
plate, the waitress should secure a fresh plate from the side 
table and return to the same position by the carver. 

This method means slow service and should not be followed 
unless the number to be served is few or there is more than one 
waitress. It may be hurried by having the vegetables served 
at the other end of the table. In this case, the plate must be 
carried from the carver to the server and then placed at the 



241) .1 .\/.Lvr.i/. OF IK KM I : u.i/v/.vr/ 

intcndt'd cover. If the vcuctablcs, K^ivy, :iii(l hrcad are to 
l>e passed, the followiliu onler may Ite oloerved: |K)ta({>(>i, 
^ravv, liread, (itlier \("j,elal»lc>, coiidiinriil , siifli as jcllx' or 
piekles. 

InfoniKil method. 

For the informal metliod, all the plates are placed in front 
of the carver. It is wisd(Mii on the part of the carver, with tliis 
type of service, to cut the entire mnnln'r of portions before 
i)e<finninf2; to serve. 

After the plate is filled, the carver may jxiss it with his ri^iht 
hand to the person at his left, or with his left hand to the per- 
son at iiis ri^ht. In this order it is passed from one to the other 
until it reaches its destination. The veKotal)les may be .served 
by the carver or by someone at the opposite end of the table. 

Clearing the table for dessert 

Semi-for77iaI method. 

The large genei'al tlishes should be removed first. The plates 
are taken from the intlividual cover, and carried from the room, 
one in each hand. Smaller equipment, such as salt and jiepper 
dishes, should be removed on a small tray. Nothing should be 
left on the table which is not to be used for the remainder of 
the meal. Glasses may be left, since man}- individuals prefer 
water toward the close of a meal. The taijle is crumbed with 
a clean folded napkin and plate, or with a crumb brush or knife 
and tray. One should replace in an orderly way any silver or 
glassware left for the last course. 

Informal method. 

The large general dishes should be removed first. The plates 
are then taken from the individual covers, and one placed 
carefully and quietly on top of the other. One should not at- 
tempt to pile more than can be safely and quietly handled. 
It saves time and effort to have a wheeled tray or a large tray 
on the side table. Plates may then l)e carried two at a time 
to this table, carefully stacked upon it, and all removed at 
once. The dininu; table should tlieii Ix' ciuinbed. 



TABLE SETTING AND SERVING 247 

SOME TABLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 

The order of serving at a meal. 

If little children are present, it is often desirable to serve them 
first, since they eat slowly and must have their food made 
ready for them. Older children need the experience of waiting. 
In the family, after the little children are served, the mother 
is served, then the girls, and finally the boys. 

If guests are present, they should be served first if the service 
is informal; if, however, the service is semi-formal, they may 
be served first or the hostess may be served first and the guests 
next. There is good reason for this last rule since it enables 
the hostess to set the pace in choice of silver, and in use of 
equipment and food, and may prevent embarrassment on the 
part of guests. If two guests are present, a man and a woman, 
the woman should be served first; an older woman should be 
served before a younger one. 

At a dinner where both men and women are present, it facil- 
itates service, after the hostess and guest of honor at her right are 
served, to complete the serving on that side of the table before be- 
ginning on the other. This is more practical though not so chiv- 
alrous as the custom at formal meals of serving all women first. 

Handling table equipment. 

The fork functions as a spear, as a shovel, and as a pick. The 
good workman leai-ns to handle his tools in an efficient way. 
When the fork functions as a spear to hold food on the plate, 
there is only one way to hold it which is at once graceful and 
altogether efficient. That is by resting the top end of the fork 
in the palm of the hand, with the rounded part of the tines up 
and the tip of the forefinger resting on the waist of the fork and 
the base of the tines to steady it. When the fork is used as a 
pick, it should be held in either hand in this same way. The food 
is lifted on the tips of the tines, the hand always uppermost, 
and carried to the mouth. When the fork is used as a shovel, 
it is held with the rounded surface of the tines down to put 
the bowl uppermost. The fork rests on the top of the curve 
in the hand formed by the thumb and forefinger and is grasped 



•-'Is .1 .l/.l,\n/, O/- HOME M.\KIS(; 

lifluccii I lie lliiiiiil) (.11 tlic l>()(|y si(|c ;iii<l I lie loiriin^cr ;i\v:iy 
from llic lindy. ImxmI is scdopcd up li>' lliis sliu\('l :iii(| tratis- 
IciTcd l»y rolaiy iiiotioii ol I lie urisl (o the niniitli. 

Th( knife was liisl used In ciil lood and to handler it t(J tlio 
inoutli. When the fork was iiiliodiiccd, the knife lost caste 
as an implciucnt for transporlin^ food. Its only acccptaMc 
use al present, is to cut and spread. The knife is held in the 
ripht hand in the same way as the fork in the left one. 

Knife and for/:. — \\'hen the plate is passed hack to the carver 
for a second servinji;, the knife and fork should he placed to- 
gether and sent alonfz; with the plate. This is because no other 
place is .so safe for tlu'ni. At the close of a nieal the knife and 
fork should be placed close together on the plate, the knife at 
the right, the fork at the left, and the handles facing the same 
direction in which they were originally placed on the table. 

The spoo7i is useful foi' mixing lifjuids and for transferring 
soft foods from the })late to the mouth. The spo(Mi should 
never be left in a cup or high glass dish after its use as a stirrer 
or feeding implement has ceased, since it gives a loose handle 
which endangers the safety of the dish. With beverages, the 
function of the si)oon is as a stirrer and taster, and not as a 
vehicle. This is because it is (nisier to sip a beverage quietly 
from the cup than fiom the spoon. 

Soup should Ik; sipped from the side of the spoon. When, 
however, a soup is full of solid substances, and if the spoon is 
a soupspoon and not a tal)lespoon, it may l)e necessary to eat 
the solid part of the soup from the tip of the spoon instead of 
sipping it from the side. 

Fork and Kpoon. — With many desserts it is desirable to give 
both a .spoon and a fork. For example, if pie is served with 
cream, both are needed. If baked apj^le or prunes are served, 
the fork helps to steady the food on the plate while the soft 
flesh is being removed from the core or seeds. This avoids the 
removal of prune seeds fi-om the mouth. 

The (ilass.- — Ikifore drinking, the lips should be wiped with 
a napkin. Otherwise the number of sips ma}' register them- 
selves on the sid(! of the glass. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE LAUNDRY* 

By Flora Rose 

Washing has a threefold purpose: to remove dirt and thus 
reopen the pores of the cloth, to dry the cloth so as to renew 
its power of absorption; and to destroy any bacteria that may 
be in it. 

FABRICS 

A first step toward gaining necessary knowledge of laundry 
methods is to learn something of the nature of the fabrics to be 
laundered and how they respond to the cleansing agents or 
solvents generally used in the laundry (p. 305). The common 
fibers used for clothing are of vegetable and animal origin. The 
chief vegetable fibers are cotton and linen; the animal fibers, 
wool and silk. Among the common laundry cleansing agents, 
called reagents, are two classes of chemicals known as acids and 
bases, or alkalis. 

Even cold dilute mineral acids may seriously injure cotton 
and linen if allowed to dry on the material. Fruit acids have 
no action on cotton and linen unless allowed to dry and then 
moistened and ironed dry. Dilute acid does not affect wool, 
but it weakens silk. 

Weak alkalis, such as dilute washing-soda solution, borax, 
and soap, have little or no harmful action on cotton and linen, 
but lye is more destructive. Dilute solutions of borax or a 
mild soa}), if only lukewarm, have but a slightly injurious ac- 
tion on wool, but they weaken silk and destroy its luster. 

* From Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 11. 

249 



!'.">() .1 .\/.i.vr.i/. OF iioMi-: MAKixr; 

WATKU 

Water is tlic natural sdlvciif for nnicli of tlic dirt that acm- 
iinilatcs on clothing; moreover, it ads as a carrier to rid tlu; 
(•lotluii<!; of all foiiiis of dirt, l)otli soiuhh; and insoluMe. A 
water ^ood for the laundr\' should he clean, soft, clear, odor- 
less, free from discoloration, free from iron, free from organic 
matter. 

Ifdnl and soft iratrr. 

The veiv chaiacttM-ist ic — its solvent power — that renders 
water valuai)le as a cleansing apjent, or deterjient, is the cause 
of its greatest shortcomings; for water may pass over, or 
through, soils that contain soluble substances of an undesii-able 
nature. The characteristic known as hardness, possessed by 
some waters, is due to the presence of lime salts gathered in 
the way described. Hard water is not the best for laundry 
purposes, since lime salts decompose the soap used and form 
in its place an insoluble lime soap, which collects as a curd on 
the surface of the water. Such soap decomposition takes place 
as long as any lime remains in the water and the cleansing, or de- 
tergent, properties of soap are not in operation until every 
bit of lime has combined with soap to form lime soap. By 
leaving minute particles of lime soap in its pores, hard water is 
said to weaken a fabric. If the available supply of water is 
hard, then, the problem of the housekeeper is to find some 
means of removing lime or of rctlucing its ill efTects. 

According to the nature of the hme salts present, water is 
said to be either temporarily or permanently hard. Temporary 
hardness is caused by the presence of carbonate of lime, and 
such water maj^ be softened l)y boiling. If the ])oiled water is 
allowed to stand, the lime settles at the bottom of the receptacle 
and the softened water may l)e drawn from the top of it. Per- 
manent hardness is due to the presence of sulfate of lime or 
magnesium. Boiling lias no softening efTect on permanently 
hard water, but certain reagents are effective. 

Another salt often very obnoxious in laundry water is iron. 
Its presence, even in ver}' small amounts, may give a yellow 



THE LAUNDRY 251 

tinge to clothing, owing to the deposit of minute particles of 
iron-riist in the pores of the fabric. 

Organic matter may be present in the water used for laundry 
purposes, which causes clothing washed in it to become dan- 
gerous to the wearer. It is very desirable in all the cited cases 
to eliminate mischievous substances. 

Materials for softening water. 

A number of materials for softening water are on the market. 
The cheapest and best of them are alkalis, known as washing- 
soda, lye, borax, and ammonia. In softening water, the objec- 
tion to the use of any chemical is the injury it may do to the 
fabric. 

Washing-soda (sodium carbonate) is the best alkali to soften 
water for general household use, for, while effective in its action, 
it is not so corrosive as to render its handling difficult or its 
use unduly harmful, nor is it expensive. It should never be 
used in its dry form, however, for it is an alkali sufficiently 
strong to eat holes in a fabric if it is used in full strength, and 
wherever a particle of the dry substance falls, a strong solution 
is formed. Carelessness causes many of the complaints against 
present-day laundry methods. 

Lye (sodium hydroxide, or caustic soda) is an alkali of far greater 
strength than washing-soda; one pound of lye being equal to 
about twelve pounds of washing-soda, it should be used with 
just so much the greater caution. It should never be used save 
in solution and, as the solution deteriorates very rapidly on 
exposure to air, if any quantity is made it should be kept in 
bottles or jars tightly stoppered with rubber stoppers. The 
compound formed by exposing lye to the action of air and water, 
is washing-soda, so there is no advantage in using it. Lye is 
much more difficult to handle, and its action is so much more 
corrosive than is that of other alkalis that it is not ad- 
visable to use it in the home laundry. 

Borax (sodium bihorate) is one of the mildest alkalis to use 
in the laundry. This alkali is more expensive than either lye 
or washing-soda and is not so vigorous in its action; but in 



L'.")2 .1 MAMAL or I to ME MAKlXd 

sdiiic iiisliiiiccs il is ji;i(';ill\- (o he prcfcrrcfl. W.-isliin^-soda 
:iii(l \yr, unless I lioroiinlilx' rinsed Iroin eloiliin^, have a Iviid- 
eiicy to cause \'ell(»\vin;i, particularly wlieii starch is iise<| alter- 
ward. iiorax, on the other hand, has a tendency to whiten 
l'ai)rics and is addiMJ directly to starch, in (»rder to f^ive it ^ood 
color and to increase its clearness. When colored fabrics or 
wools arc to ho washed in hard water, horax is one of the hesfc 
alkalis to use for softening the water. 

Ammonia (aniinonitim lii/dnKridc) is another ^o(jd alkali for 
.softening water when it is not advisable to Use .strouKor alkalis. 
Ammonia is a veiy volatile substance, consequently it should 
be used only when the laundry j^rocess is to be eon<lucteiI 
(juickly. It is better and cheaper to purchase the full-strength 
ammonia from a dru^Rist and then dilute it, than to buy the 
article know-n as household ammonia, which is of unknown 
strength. 

How to soften water. 

Both permanently and temporarily hard water maj' be 
softened by distillation, but that method involves apparatus 
not practicable for the avera<z;e home. 

If w'ater is temporarily hard, however, it may be softened 
by being boiled, then allow'ed to stand until the lime settles. 
The top water is afterward drawn off. Boiling; water to soften 
it is without doul)t the best method if it softens the water suf- 
ficienth', since no harmful chemicals are left in the water to 
injure fabrics. 

Either temporarily or i)ermanently hard water may l)e 
softened by adding lime or washing-soda to the water, then 
allowing it to stand in open kegs for several days before its use. 
The water should then be drawn from the top. If the water 
is boiled after the atldition of the softening agent, the time for 
standing may })e considerably lessened. Neither of the two 
processes just desci'ibed is much in use in the household, since 
the time consumed by them is often considered vmwarranted. 
The more common method is to add washing-soda, lye, borax, 
or ammonia at the time of washing. The addition of one of 



THE LAUNDRY 253 

those substances at that time prevents the action of the hme 
on the soap. A good suds may thus quickly be obtained, but 
it does not rid the water of the hme-soap curd which forms and 
which, in part at least, becomes entangled in the pores of the 
cloth. The entangled curd has a weakening action on the fabric 
and gives it a close, filled-in appearance. 

The only satisfactory method of getting rid of iron is to add 
washing-soda to the water, then allowing the water to settle 
for five or six days before using it. The top water is afterward 
drawn off. 

Water may be softened by any of the following methods : 

1. For each gallon of water, use 2 tablespoons of a solution 
made by dissolving 1 pound of washing-soda in 1 quart of boiling 
water. The solution should be bottled and kept on hand, as 
it is a useful cleansing agent, or detergent. 

2. For each gallon of water use V4 tablespoon of lye dissolved 
in 1 cup of water. 

3. For each gallon of water use 1 tablespoon of borax dis- 
solved in 1 cup of water. 

If water is very hard, increase the amount of alkali used. 

Organic matter. 

Organic material may be precipitated by the use of alum in 
the form of an alum-borax mixture. The sediment should be 
allowed to settle and the water may then be drawn from the 
top. 

To remove organic matter, for each gallon of water 1 table- 
spoon of a mixture made up of two-thirds borax and one-third 
alum should be used. If the water is rich in organic matter, 
more than 1 tablespoon of the mixture must be used. When 
water is very scarce, alum is sometimes used to separate the 
dirt from the water and the water is then filtered and used 
again. 

SOAP 

A question often arises as to the advisability of using kitchen- 
waste fats in making soap at home. While some house- 
keepers may find such use an economy, the fact remains that 



254 .1 MA.\L AL OF IK I Ml: M.\l\l\(! 

Ii(tiiic-iii;i(l(' soaps arc ^ciiciallx' poorly mafic ati'l of inferior 
(luality. Tlic inferiority' of Ijoine-iniulc soaps may have .st;veral 
causes. TIjc so-called cold process is usually followed in making 
those soaps, and rarely is the union of the fat with the lye coni- 
plet(>. 'J'he fat used in home-made soap is often filled with 
imj)uriti(>s and they arc not always removed before the soap is 
made. As the fat in kitchen waste varies proatly in composition, 
it is impossil)le to ^ive the exact amount of alkali rcfjuired for 
home-made soap. It is evident, then, that home-made soap 
is likely to he filled with impurities and to be both greasy and 
excessively caustic, "eating," because of the presence of free 
fat and an undue amount of free alkali. For the benefit of 
those hous(>kccp(M-s who wish to try its manufacture, however, 
a formula is given on page 256. 

Soap substitutes and accessories. 

Soap is the best all-round cleansing agent to use in the laun- 
dry, but there are other sut)stances with similar cleansing prop- 
erties that may be used with good results in its place: 

In the leaves, stems, roots, or bark of some plants occurs a 
soap-like substance that is closely allied to soap in its power to 
remove dirt. Soap-bark (quillaia bark) is a familiar example of 
this kind of cleansing agent. When powdered soap-bark is 
]iut into water it gives a good latiier, and it acts quickly and 
effectively to remove dirt and stains. 

Another substance with soap-like characteristics, but of 
animal origin, is known as ox-bile, or ox-gall. Soap-bark and 
ox-gall are doubtless well known to the housekeeper, for they 
are often used to wash garments easily injured by the strong al- 
kalis, for example, woolens, and fabrics printed in delicate colors. 

Bran, rice, jwtatoes, and starch are frecjuentl}' recommended 
as good substitutes for soaps in washing delicate fabrics and 
coloi's. 

Various substances are used with soap to facilitate or acceler- 
ate the washing process. Among them may be mentioned 
lye, washing-soda, borax, and ammonia; turpentine, paraffin, 
kerosene, and benzine; and fuller's earth. 



THE LAUNDRY 255 

Alkalis are often used in connection with soap, in excess of 
the amount needed to soften hard water, to facilitate the re- 
moval of dirt by their direct action on it. In many cases it 
is a mistake to pursue such a course if the alkali used is lye. The 
same objections may hold with washing-soda, but in lesser 
degree. If the fabric is of such nature that limited amounts 
of lye or washing-soda will not seriously injure it, a strong soap 
will contain all the free lye that is safe to use. Borax and am- 
monia are mild alkalis and may be very useful when the pres- 
ence of some free alkali is needed and the effect of a strong soap 
would be injurious. They are often utilized in connection with 
a neutral or mild soap for washing flannels and delicately 
colored fabrics. 

Turpentine, paraffin, kerosene, and benzine are all valuable 
aids to the laundress, for they exert a solvent action on matter 
of a fatty nature and thus soften and loosen dirt, materially 
facilitating the washing process. The disadvantage in the use of 
these substances is, that clothing in the washing of which they 
have been used may be insufficiently rinsed afterward and retain 
the odor of them. Benzine is dangerous to handle because of its 
inflammability, and cannot be used with very hot water because 
it evaporates. 

Fuller's earth is a valuable adjunct in cleaning, and is some- 
times used partly to replace soap in the washing process when 
the articles to be washed are in a very greasy condition and the 
use of a strong soap is not sufficient, and when the use of a 
strong alkali is not advisable. 

Manufacturers have put on the market various soaps and 
powders that have incorporated with them some one or more of 
the above substances. Naphtha and borax soaps and soaps con- 
taining fuller's earth give satisfaction. Good results may be 
obtained at less cost by the use of soap and the accessory ma- 
terial uncombined, though it may often be more convenient 
to use the manufactured article that is a combination of the two. 

Washing powders are mixtures of soap and some alkali such 
as lye, washing-soda, and borax, and may have incorporated 
with them some one or more of the substances of the nature of 



250 .1 .iy.i.\/.i/, or iio.Mi: makim: 

lurpcntiiio, pnraffiii, fuller's (';irlli. In the i.i-r <>\ tho poorer 
powders u "filler" is used, fliaf is, a siihstanre jriviii*; weiiihf 
to tlie j)o\vder and very properly considered an adulleranl. Tliir 
hest powdeis eontain iar}z;e amounts of soap and only small 
amounts of alkali. A reiwrt is mad(> of one of the i)oorer varie- 
ties of wasliinj:; jK)wder containinK only 10 per cent of soap. 
l!nou}z;h has heen said in comiection with the elTect of alkalis 
and their use to guide the housekeeper in her purchase and u.s(! 
of these powders. There may ho occasions when a washing 
powder is dcsiral)le, but indiscriminate use of these strong cleans- 
ing agents is inadvisable and should not be generally indulged in. 

Directions and foDnulas. 

Ilomc-mudc snap: 

1 pound can lye dissolved in 3 pints cold water 

5 pounds fat molted, IH tahlespoon.s borax, J 2 Pup ammonia 

When lye mixture has cooled add it to fat, stir until as thick as honey, 

pour into wooden or pasteboard Ijoxcs lined with oiled or waxed paper, 

set away to harden. 

Soap-hark: 

1 pound soap-bark ('(juals 2 i)()unds soft soap. Use in place of soa]). 
Bran: 
1 cup bran 
1 quart water 

Hoil y^ hour. Strain, boil liran in a second cjuart water ' 2 hour. When 
needed, reduce with warm water. 

Potato water: 

Grate two larpe-sized i)()tatoes into 1 pint dean, clear, soft water. 
Strain into 1 gallon water, let liquid settle. Pour off and use. 

Soap sohdion for irashincj colored goods: 

J4 pound mild or medium soap to 1 gallon water. 

Soap soltdioii for ordinary pnrpoaes: 

1 bar ordinary washing .soap 

2 to 3 quarts water 

Shave soap and put into saucepan witii cold water. Heat gradually 
until soap is dissolved (about 1 hour). 

Soap solution for noakinr) elotheft: 
1 bar ordijiarv soap 

3 gallons water 

j2to 1 talilespoon turpentine 
1 to '{ lalilespooiis ammoni:!. 



THE LAUNDRY 257 

Soap solution for u'dsfdiig much-soiled ivoolens and delicate colors: 
}/2 pound VQvy mild or neutral soap 
J4 pound borax • 
3 quarts water. 

Soap jelly intli lurpenline incorporated: 

1 bar soap 

1 quart water 

1 teaspoon turpentine or kerosene. 

A liquid for washing delicate fabrics and colors may be 
made from laundry starch, grated potatoes, rice, flour, and the 
like. The water in which rice has boiled may be saved and 
utilized for the same purpose. The cleansing liquid after cook- 
ing should be as thick as cream and should be diluted from one 
to four times, according to the amount of dirt in the clothing. 
Clothing should be rinsed in a more dilute solution, which 
may be blued for white clothes. 

STARCH 

There is a twofold reason for the use of starch in laundry 
operations: (1) the glazed surface of a starched garment keeps 
clean longer than an unglazed, or unstarched, surface; (2) the 
increase in body of the starched garment gives it increased re- 
sistance to moisture and some garments are considered corre- 
spondingty more attractive in appearance. In the commercial 
laundry and in those industries in which the finishing of fabrics 
is a consideration, use is made, not of one kind of starch, but of 
several, according to the nature of the work to be done. 

The American housekeeper uses, as a rule, only cornstarch, 
because of its cheapness and a lack of knowledge of the char- 
acteristics of the other starches. The several varieties of starch 
vary considerably in their ability to penetrate fabrics. The 
reason for the use of rice starch with finer fabrics by those con- 
sidered to do a superior grade of laundry work, is because of its 
penetrative quality. It is said to penetrate the pores of a fabric 
more completely than does any other starch and to give a finer, 
smoother finish. Next to rice starch in penetrability comes 
wheat starch. 'Cornstarch is the poorest of the three starches; 
it has a tendency to lump and show starch spots after ironing. 



•j:)S A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC 

Hicc starch ^ivcs a iiatmal, i)ur(' wliilc color to fabrics, whilo 
cornstarch ^ivcs a yellow color, and wheat, starch a color he- 
Iweeii the two. Since wheat, starcii an<l cornstarch are tho 
practical possibilities in the American household, further coin- 
|)aiison will he between these two. When j^ood color, smooth- 
ness of surface, i)liability, and fine finish are desireil, wheat 
starch trives the better results; moroover, it is said to hold up 
lie! ter in damp climate.s. Cornstarch gives the greater stifTness, 
or body, to a fabric. 

According to the finish desiicd, advantage is taken of the 
different characteristics of wheat starch and cornstarch. When 
flexibility and finish are the main olijects, wheat starch is used 
alone; if stiffness is the chief con.sideration and finish may be 
overlooked, coi'nstarch is used alone; when it is desirable to 
combine stiffness with flexibility and good finish, a mixture of 
cornstarch and wheat starch is used. There is no reiison why 
the use of wheat starch should not extend to the home laundry. 

Various substances are used with starcli to increase its pene- 
t lability and prevent it from sticking to the iron, as well as to 
give pliability to the cloth, increase its body, and improve its 
color. Of these substances may be mentioned borax, alum, 
paraffin, wax. turpentine, kerosene, gum arable, glue, and dex- 
trin. 

Borax increases the penetrability of starch and aids in pre- 
venting it from sticking to the iron. ]\Ioreover, starch contain- 
ing borax adds gloss to a garment, increases its whiteness, and 
gives it gr(viter l>ody, together with more lasting stiffness, than 
it would otherwise have. 

Alum is used alone, or with borax, in starch to improve color, 
to increase penetrability and pliability, and to thin the starch 
mixture. When alum is cooked with a starch paste it causes the 
paste to Ijecome thinner. " Cooking thin " with alum does not 
affect the strength of the starch mixture and is an advantage 
when a stiff starch is desirable and the thick mixture would be 
inconvenient to handle. By the use of alum, starch may be 
made thin without dilution. Alum has been objected to by some 
persons as Ixung somewhat injurious to fabrics. 



THE LAUNDRY 259 

Oily substances, such as wax, paraffin, turpentine, lard, or 
butter, are used to add a smoothness, gloss, and finish, to pre- 
vent the starch from sticking to the iron, and to aid in prevent- 
ing the absorption of moisture. 

Substances resembling glue, such as gum arabic and dextrin, 
are used with starch to increase its stiffening power. They are 
sometimes used alone when the white color of starch is con- 
sidered a disadvantage in stiffening colored fabrics. 

Directions for using starch, starch substitutes, and starch ac- 
cessories: 

In making starch, a naturally soft water is greatly to be de- 
sired, but if the water furnished is hard it should be softened 
with borax, not with washing-soda or lye, since these tend to 
produce a yellow color with starch: 

1. )4: cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, light, durable finish. 

2. J<^ cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives moderate body stiffness. 

3. 3^ cup wheat starch to 1 quart water gives flexible, firm finish. 

4. ]/2, cup cornstarch to 1 quart water gives stiff body finish. 

A mixture of the two starches may be varied, to produce any 
desired result. 

Directions for cooking starch: 

Starch should first be mixed with a little cold water and then 
stirred slowly into boiling water and cooked in accordance with 
the following directions: 

1. If wheat starch, is used, cook slowly at least 25 or 30 minutes. 

2. If cornstarch is used, cook slowly 15 to 20 minutes. 

3. If a mixture of wheat starch and cornstarch is used, the wheat starch 
should be added first and cooked 15 minutes. The cornstarch should then 
be added and the mixture cooked 15 minutes longer. Stir the mixture fre- 
quently, to prevent sticking and formation of a film. 

Thorough cooking of starch is very desirable in laundry prac- 
tice, for it increases the penetrability of the starch and decreases 
its tendency to stick to the iron. If borax, lard, butter, kerosene, 
or other like substance is used, it should be cooked with the 
starch, to insure thorough mixing. 



260 .1 w.iA / .1/. I If iioMi: M \hi\(; 

Thick sltnrli: 

' 2 Clip slatcli, iiiixt<l Willi ' ^. flip cold water 
I <iuart l)()iliiin water 
'2 to 1 level taliles|)(»iJii horax 

'.J level talilespiion lard nr Imtter nr kerosene or tiir|)etitine; or I4- 
inch-sqiiare wax or paradiii 

Mix, and cook aeeordiiij^ to directions for cooking starch. 

Thin starch: 

]'2 cup starcii, mixed with '2 cup cold water 

'.i (jiiarts hoiling water 

Other iiifziredients, same as for thick starch 

Mix, cook according; to directions for cooking starch. 

Clear starch: 

Dilute I 2 cup thick starch with 1 ([uart hot water. 

Clear starch is used for thin muslins, infants' dresses, and the like. 

Raw starch: 

Same proporticms as for thick starch. 

U.se horax hut omit fatty substances. 

Stir thoroughly hefore using. 

Raw .starch is often u.sed with very thick or very thin goods, to increase 
their .stifTness. A fabric will take uj) a greater amount of starch in the 
raw than in the cooked form. The desired stillness is produced by t!i" 
cooking given the raw starch l)y the heat of the iron. The difficulty f 
ironing is increased by using raw starch, for unless the ironer is skillfi.l 
the starch cooks on the iron and starch specks are then produced on t'l" 
clothes. Moreover, raw starch gives a less durable finish than does cooked 
starch. 

Rice starch: 



4 cup nee 



1 quart boiling water 

Wash rice, cook in water until very soft. 

As water evaporates, add more to keei) (luaiitity up to 1 <iuart. 

When cooked add another fjuart boiling water. 

Strain, without scjueezing, through di)ubi(> thickness of cheese-cloth e.r 
through flannel. I'se while hot. The most satisfactory starch for tlelicatc 
fabrics is rice starch, and it may be used in place of clear starch. 

(line for stiff ciiino dark clnllns: 

12 ounces dark glue 

1 <|uart water 

Boil together until glue is dissolved, cool .som(>what. Dip the garmenl 
to be stifTened into glue and wipe oil" excess of glue with piece of black 
cheese-cloth, .sateen, or calico. After sprinkling, roll garmenl in bla.l: 



THE LAUNDRY 261 

clotli and iron on ironing l)o;mI covered with black doth. Any glue left 
over may be saved and used again. 

To increase diffmss: 

1. Partly dry garment before starching. 

2. Add 1 tablespoon powdered gum ural)ic reduced (o liquid in l-^ cup 
boiling water, to the stiff starch mi.\ture. 

3. Use borax. 

4. Add a small amount of glue to starch mi.xture. 

5. Dry quickly. 

Gum arable as a starch subslilute: 

4 tablespoons pulverized gum arabic 

1 pint cold water 

3 tablespoons alcohol. 

Put water and gum arabic in saucepan and set into saucepan containing 
boiling water. 

When dissolved, strain through cheese-cloth, cool, add alcohol, pour into 
a bottle, cork, set away for use. The alcohol acts as a preservative and 
the mixture may be kept for any length of time. 

BLUING 

White fabrics have naturally a creamy tint, which may be 
deepened to an unpleasant pale yellow by careless washing, 
by insufficient rinsing, or by lack of exposure to the bleaching 
influence of sunlight and fresh air. Bluing is used to hide the 
yellow color, because blue and yellow are complementary colors 
and when used together in proper proportions give the effect of 
whiteness. Bluing is unwarrantably used to hide a yellowness 
which comes from careless washing. 

No one kind of bluing may be recommended to the house- 
keeper. She must experiment for herself, choose one good 
variety, and learn to use that one properly. 

Sufficient bluing should be used to make a little of the bluing 
water taken up in the cup of the hand show a pale sky-blue color. 
More than that amount of bluing should not l)e needed. It is 
always best to make a small amount of strong bluing in a bowl 
of water, then draw from it to color the water in the tub. 

WASHING 

While Monday has long been chosen as the home day for 
washing, there may be good reason to postpone the process 



2(i'2 .1 MAXIM, or IK) mi: MAKlXr; 

iiiilil Tiicsday. i'x'tdrc \v:i>liiiiji <l.'iy, clolliiiiK sliowld he tlior- 
ou^IiIn' j::()1ic over to discover iciits and stains, carefully sorted, 
and the white clothes j)ut to soak. 'I'liis preliminary work re- 
(jiiires time which it m.i\- lie inconvenient to ^^ive on Saturday 
and which ma\' not Ix- justilietj on Sunday. 

The following outline is .suf^gestcd for the preparation of 
clothes for washinji;: 

1. Sort the clotlics acfonliriK to kind: 
a. White cotton and linen clotliing 

Tabic linen and dean towels 

Bed antl ])ody linen 

Handkerchiefs 

Soiled towels and cloths. 
1). Colored clothing. 
0. Flannels. 

2. Mend rents, except in .stockings. 

3. Remove stains (pages 282 to 306). 

4. Put as many white clothes to soak as is practicable. Some colored 
clothes having fast colors may be soaked if very much soiled. 

The purpose of soaking soiled clothes before washinja; them 
is to soften and separate the fibers of cloth in order to loosen 
dirt. Water alone accomplishes this purpose to a great extent; 
but the use of a soap solution, or a soap solution to which has 
been added borax, ammonia, or other alkali, and turpentine, 
kerosene, or benzine, makes the washing process both easier 
and (luickcr. 

It is well before l)eginning the washing to make a soap solu- 
tion, as it gives a quick suds and is more easily handled, and 
its use will, therefore, save time. 

All the clothing should not be put to soak in the same tub. 
If three tubs are available, table linen and clean towels should 
be soaked in one, bed linen and body linen in a second, soiled 
towels and cloths in a third. If only two tubs are available, 
table linen and clean towels may be washed without prelim- 
inar}' soaking. Soiled towels and cloths should always be 
soaked befon^ washing. 

If colds have prevailed in a family, the handkerchiefs should 
be put to soak in a solution of boric acid in a basin by them- 



THE LAUNDRY 263 

selves, and should be separately washed and boiled for twenty 
minutes. 

The garment to be soaked should be wet, the more soiled 
part rubbed with soap solution, and that part folded in. Each 
garment should be folded and rolled separately and packed 
into the tub with the other garments. Folding and rolling 
prevents the dirt in the soiled parts from spreading. The 
clothes are then covered with warm soapy water, to which may 
have been added an alkali such as borax or ammonia, and 
an oily substance, perhaps turpentine, kerosene, or benzine. 
Directions for making soap solutions are given on page 256. 
The tub should be covered, and if possible the clothing allowed 
to soak in it during several hours or overnight. If colored 
clothes are to be soaked, they should be covered with warm 
water or with water very slightly soapy. No alkali should be 
used with the colored clothing. 

No arbitrary order can be recommended for washing clothes, 
but flannels, white goods, and colored goods should be washed 
separately as the washing process differs somewhat for each case. 

A few simple explanations may aid the houskeeper in solving 
some of her problems. Heat tends to expand the threads of 
the cloth, and the expansion aids in removing dirt caught be- 
tween the threads. If the cloth is cooled during the washing 
process, the thread contracts and the dirt is again entangled; 
consequently, after the cloth has once been warmed, one of 
the objects of the launderer should be to maintain an even or 
a rising temperature. In the commercial laundry, an even 
temperature is kept by turning the correct amount of steam 
into the washing-machine. In the home laundrj'', boiling water 
added from time to time will aid in keeping an even tempera- 
ture. A good suds is necessary in the washing process. A^ 
the suds falls, that is, as it is used up by uniting with dirt, more 
suds should be supplied by adding more soap or soap solution. 
If insufficient soap is used, insoluble black specks are often left 
on the clothing. 

All utensils, receptacles, and apparatus should be immacu- 
lately clean. 



2<it .1 M.WIWL or HOME M.\l</.\(; 

(Jnlrr (if ii'dshi/Kj irliilc li/un a/id cultun cluthcs : 

I . I'll! water on to licat. 
'_'. Make soaj) soliilioM. 

.'i. Hiiisc clothes fnnii water in wliicli lliey have soaked. 

4. Wash clothes in warm suds iti follfjwii)^ ortlir: 
a. Table linen and clean towels 

I), lied linen 

c. Body linen 

d. Handkerchiefs 

o. Soiled towels and clot lis 

f. Stockings 
'). W'asli again in clean suds. Wring, 
(j. Boil in clean, .slightly soapy water. 
7. Rinse in clean, clear water. Wring. 

5. Rinse in bluing water. Wring. 

9. Starch. 

10. Hang to dry. 

II. Remove from line, dampen, and fold. 

Directions for ivashing: 

1. Have plenty of hot water before beginning the wa.shing. If pcssible 
the water should be .soft; if it is not, soften it as directed on pages 252 
and 253. 

2. Make a soap solution; use one cake of soap to two or three quarts 
of water. 

3. Rinse the clot lies from water in which they were .soaked, removing 
as much of the dirt as possible. Parts of the clothing that are very much 
soiled should be rubl)ed a little and rinsed in fresh water before the gar- 
ments are put into a tub or a washing-machine. The precaution of rinsing 
saves wear and tear on the whole garment. 

4. Pour warm water into tub or washing-machine; if the water is hard, 
soften it with washing-soda solution or borax. Add enough soap solution 
or soap to make a good suds. A tablespoon of turpentine, kerosene, or 
l)enzine may be added to the washing water as well as to the water in which 
clothing has soaked. Put in clothes to be washed. Rubbing is essential 
for soiled garments. It may be accomplished in one of two ways: by 
using the washboard and old-fashioned tub, or by using a washing-machine. 
It is well to have a board for very soiled parts, such as hems and edges, 
but the washing-machine is a great improvement on the older method. 

Whenever the Avater becomes dirt\', use fresh suds. Clothes cannot 
be made clean without the use of plenty of water. Iveep up a good sud.s 
while washing, and add hot water from time to time. If a washing-machine 
is used, do not put enough water in the machine to float the clothes; if 
this is done, they will escape the mechanical action of the dasher and will 



THE LAUNDRY 265 

not be sufficiently rubbed. Clothes should be wrung from the wash water 
through the wringer. The screws of the wringer should be adjusted to 
bring its rolls close together and clothing should be folded so as to give 
it an even thickness in passing through the wringer; for heavier garments 
loosen the screws of the wringer. Fold in buttons and hooks and turn the 
wringer slowly. 

5. A second suds is generally necessary, though it may be omitted if 
the clothing has been only slightly soiled. Shake out clothes wrung from 
the first suds, look them over for soiled parts, turn them wrong side out, 
and drop them into a second suds. Wash and wring them ready for boiling. 

6. Clothes should be clean before they are boiled, as the boiling process 
is intended not so much to remove visible dirt as to destroy germs and 
purify the clothing as well as to whiten it. Boiling is omitted when a 
naphtha soap is used, because the soap loses its effect in very hot water; it is 
asserted that boiling is not needed because naphtha itself is a purifier. 
Nevertheless, at least once a month, the clothing washed at other times 
with naphtha soap should be boiled. 

Fill the boiler half full of cold water; if the water is hard, soften it. 
Add enough soap solution to make a light suds. Half fill the boiler with 
clothes, wrung and shaken out from the last suds. Use plenty of water 
and do not put too many clothes into the boiler. Bring the water very 
gradually to the boiling point, and boil it for ten minutes. 

Kerosene or turpentine is sometimes added to the boiler water to counter- 
act the yellow color given clothing by the use of the dark resin soaps. 
It is better to avoid kerosene and turpentine at this point if possible, because 
clothing treated by them requires very thorough rin.sing to remove the 
odor. Each boilerful of clothes should be started with clean cold water. 
Cloths or clothes containing lampblack or machine oil may be placed 
in the hot water left in the boiler after the last clothes have been wrung 
from it. Kerosene or turpentine should then be added, since they are the 
solvents for such dirt. 

7. Rinsing is an important part of the washing process, for if soap or 
some of the strong alkalis are left in the cloth, they may be very detri- 
mental in the bluing or starching process. 

If water is hard, it should be softened for rinsing with either borax or 
ammonia and not with washing-soda. The rinsing water should be hot. 
The clothes should be slowly lifted with a clean stick from the boiler into 
a dishpan, and drained or wrung and shaken before being put into the rinse 
water. It is not always practicable to use more than one rinse water 
before bluing the clothes, but better results are obtained when the clothes 
are rinsed more than once. With some kinds of bluing, the presence of 
soap or an alkali precipitates the blue as iron-rust. If the starch used is 
not pure, and any lye or washing-soda or soap has been left in the cloth, 
a yellow color is produced from the starch impurities by the action of those 
alkalis. Wring the clothes from the rinsing water, and shake them out. 



L'c.c. .1 .i/.i\r.i/. or iioMi: MM<f\(; 

S. It is itn|)()s,sil)l(' to n'Vc any rule for the amount of l)liiinK (o uso 
or thf depth of color to l)C' decided on. Some falirics, kucIi !ls soft, loosely- 
woven ones, ahsorl) more hluinn than others. The umoimt of hininn to l>e 
used is ji nialtiT for experimentation liy the launderer. Clothes should 
not he allowed to stand in tlie hilling water, as tliey minht become streaked. 

If a hall l)luinK is u.sed, tie it in a thick cloth, wet, and sc|ueeze it into 
a bowlful of hot water. U.se a iiart of the resulting solution for hluiiiK 
the water. More of the hluinK in the howl should lie added to the MuiiiK 
in the tub from time to time a.s the rlotiiinn takes it up. As some kind.s 
of bluing are in the form of minute particles, the l)luing \vatcr .should bo 
stirred each time Ix'fore adding clothes to it. After they arc wrung, 
ini-starched clothes will then be ready for drying. 

9. Make the stiirch according to directions on pages 259 to 2()1. Starch 
tho.sc garments requiring thick starch first, Vjecau.se moisture from the 
clothing gradually tliins the starch, and a medium stiff, medium thin, 
and thin starcli gradually result. 

St iff .starch: Collars, cuffs, sliirt l)o.soms. 

Medium stiff utarch: Shirt waists, collars and cuffs, coarse lace curtains. 

Medium, thin .starch: White petticoats, duck skirts, and some drcs.se.s. 

Thin .starch: Skirts and dresses when a stiff finish is not desired; shirt 
waists. 

Clear starch: Infants' dresses, fine laces, curtains, light-weight table linen 
when it is desirable to give it souk; body. 

Raw starch: Collars, cutis, shirt bosoms when an extra stiffness is desired; 
some light curtains. 

The starch should l)e thoroughly worked into the cloth .so as to distribute 
it evenly through the threads of the fabric. Such working insures a smooth, 
even stiffness and jirevenfs starch spots in ironing. All garments starched 
with boiled starch should be dried thorouglily l)efore being dampened. 
They should be dampened several hours before Ix'ing ironed. If articles 
are to be raw-starched, they should l)e thoroughly dried first. They are 
then dipped into the raw starch and rul)l)ed as for washing, .squeezed dry, 
and si)read out on a clean sheet or cloth, but not one over the other. They 
should cover only half the sheet. The other half of the sheet shoiild 
be folded over them. Then the .sheet with its contents should be rolled 
tightly and allowed to stand for two or three hours to insure even distri- 
bution of moisture. 

10. When possible tli(> j)rocess of drying should accomplish more than 
the mere removal of moisture. Clothing should l^e hung where it will be 
freely expos(>d to the action of fresh air and sunshine. Such exposure puri- 
fies and bleaches at the same time. 

The launderer should hv provided with a clofhe.s-pin bag or, better still, 
with a clothes-pin ajjron having a deep wide pocket. 

When possible, lines should i)e taken down each week, but when they 
cannot be, they should be well wiped with a damp cloth before hanging 



THE LAUNDRY 267 

up clothes. The clothes-pins should he clean. Each article should be 
turned wrong side out and liung with the threads of the material straight; 
the garment should be shaped as nearly as possible in its natural shape. 
Avoid hanging pieces by corners, for thus hung they would be puUed out 
of shape. Fasten garments by their bands when possible. Table linen, 
bed linen, and towels should be well stretched and hung very straight; 
the larger pieces should be pinned in at least four places, as it is nearly 
impossible to iron properly a piece that has been improperly hung. Careful 
hanging greatly reduces the labor of ironing. When the clothes are brought 
in from the line, the clothes-pins should be put into the apron or basket 
kept for that purpose and placed where they will be clean. 

Starched pieces should not be allowed to freeze and should l)e removed 
from the line as soon as dry. Long hanging reduces their stiffness. If 
flannel underwear is properly stretched and hung, it may be folded and put 
away without further treatment. 

11. Clothes should be dampened some hours before being ironed, 
because during the interval between moistening and ironing the moisture- 
becomes distributed evenly and does away with the necessity of using a 
superfluous amount of water. The dampening is best done at night, but 
only as many articles should be sprinkled as can be ironed next day, for 
damp fabric will mildew if left wet for a few days, especially in hot weather. 
Although clothes should be well dampened, they should not be drenched. 
Very often, trouble in ironing starched pieces is owing to overwetting. 
The starched part is soaked and made limp and sticky. A clean whisk- 
broom kept for the purpose is the best thing to use for sprinkling clothes. 
Some persons have used a toy sprinkling pot. There is, however, a danger 
in its use, for it may rust and give rise to rust spots on clothing. Large 
pieces should be sprinkled and folded separately. Small pieces may be 
sprinkled and laid together before folding. Care should be taken to fold 
and roll garments smoothly, since this aids in their ironing. The rolls of 
dampened pieces should be packed closely in a basket lined with a clean 
cloth and covered with a clean cloth. 

Table linen and other linen should be made very damp, not wet. If 
table linen is sprinkled with a mixture of one part alcohol and four parts 
water, the result after ironing will be a slight stiffness resembling that of 
new linen. 

If an ironing machine is used, unstarched pieces may be removed from 
the line while still damp and ironed immediately without the preliminary 
sprinkling. 

Washing colored clothing. 

Colored goods require more careful treatment than do white 
goods. The conditions that most affect the stability of colors 
in fabrics are: long-continued action of water and soap; strong 



268 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or homi-: makixc 

alkalis or acids; slioiiu; suiiliiihl, uliicli i'- a powerful Itlcadiiiit; 
ajj;(Mil and is used ficciuciit ly lni- l)lcacliiii^r. 

In wasliinji; colored cloliiiii^, I lie lachds jii>t (•niiiucralcd 
should he k('j)t in mind. ( 'oloicd clolliinjz; should noi Ix- soaked 
for any lenjj;lh of time unless its color is known to he very 
slahlc. Any soap used in the washing process should he a mild 
soap in solution, or if the color of the ^^oods to be wasiied is 
very delicate the soap solutioji should l)e replaced hy soap- 
bark, bran, rice water, potato water, oi- cooked-starch water. 
The washiufz; process sliould be conducted (luickly. and in water 
not very hot. After washiufz;, colored garments slu.'uld 1)0 
turned inside out and lumji; in a ver}^ shady or dark jjlacc, and 
should be taken in as soon as dry. Fading is more often due 
to careless dryin}:; than to any fault in washing. \\'ashing 
powders and strong alkalis should never be used with colored 
clothing. If the water needs softening, borax should be u.sed. 
If starch, bran, rice water, and the like, are substituted for 
soap, the mixture shoukl be employed as if it were soap- 
suds. 

In starching colored clothes, the starch should be rubl)ed 
in thoroughly, and any excess of it wiped off; no difficulty will 
then be experienced with white starch spots. 

Sometimes a fabric shows a decided tendency to fade even 
under the best washing conditions. It is always well if there 
is any doubt about fading, to test a small piece of the cloth 
before washing it. If the color fades, an attempt should 
be made to s(»t it. With most colors, the dyer uses chemical 
substances which cause a firmer union between the color and 
the cloth. Such substances arc called mordants. The proce? 
of making a color fast may sometimes satisfactorily be used by 
the housekeeper to strengthen weak colors. The household 
mordants are vinegar, brine, and sugar of lead, used in the fol- 
lowing proportions: 

To 1 gallon water add: 

3^ cup mild vinogar; most otTortivp for liluo.« 

2 cups salt; most offcctivc for hrowns, hlacks, and pinks 

1 tablespoon sugar of lead ti)()ison); most effective for lavcndprs. 



THE LAUNDRY 269 

Small pieces of cloth should be tested in each of the above 
solutions and a choice made after the test. The cloth of which 
the color is to be made fast should be left in the mordant solu- 
tion overnight and may be left in for several days with good 
results. It should be thoroughly dried before being washed. 
Even with relatively strong colors, soaking a fabric overnight 
in a brine solution before washing it for the first time may 
render it far less susceptible to fading influences than it other- 
wise would be. The effect of brine, however, is said not to be 
lasting. Colored goods are often rinsed in a dilute salt solu- 
tion just before being dried. 

Washing woolens. 

Strong soaps should never be used in washing woolens, nor 
should soap be applied directly to the garment. The soap 
should be used in solution, A great deal of stress is laid on 
having the water used in washing flannels not much more than 
lukewarm, for at a lukewarm temperature soap and water 
have a less detrimental action on wool. It is even more im- 
portant than the lukewarm water to have all the waters used 
of the same temperature, in order to avoid changes from hot 
to cold water, or vice versa, as sudden changes in temperature 
cause shrinkage. 

To wash flannels, two receptacles should be used. Into one 
of them water not too hot for the hand to bear comfortably 
should be poured and enough soap solution made from a neu- 
tral or mild soap or a wool soap added to make a good suds. If 
the water is hard, or the clothing is very much soiled, a table- 
spoon of borax or ammonia should be added for each gallon 
of water used, the garment shaken or brushed free from 
dust, and put into the water to soak for ten or fifteen min- 
utes. Before beginning to wash the flannels, a second tub of 
water should be prepared having the same or a slightly higher 
temperature than that of the first. One garment should be 
washed at a time by drawing it through the hands and wash- 
ing it up and down in the water; rubbing should be avoided 
if possible since this mats the fibers. The garments are passed 



270 A MAM M. OF IK) Ml-: M.\l<l\(; 

from tilt' lirst to the second water; t lie secoiiil \v;itor should he ;i 
suds if the lirst suds has not icniovcd all the soil. 'I'hev should 
be rinsed free of soap in several waters, the temperature hein^^ 
kept constant. Tiiey are then wruii^ through a loosely set 
wringer. They shoulii he turned wron^ si<l«' out and hung 
in a warm place, but not near a fire as heat will cause shrinkage. 
W'lieii nearly dry, they should he liu-ned. When drying they 
nuist be shaped by pulling and stretching. 

It is a mistake to a.scril)e all the shrinkage in woolen garments 
to washing. Tiie moisture, heat, and movements of the body 
may cause a marked shrinkage. 

If flannels are to be pre.s.sed, they should be alhnved to dry 
first and should then be covered with a slightl}' dampened 
piece of cheese-cloth and ironed with a moderatelj^ hot iron. 
The cheese-cloth draws up the fibers of the flannel, giving it 
the fluffy appearance of a new garment. Underwear and wo(jlen 
stockings should be stretched into shape and should not be 
ironed. For very soiled garments the soap formula given on 
page 256 will be useful. 

Blankets are washed in the same way as other woolen articles, 
except that, because of their size, only two blankets or only 
one pair of them is washed at a time, and fresh water is used 
for each pair. After wringing, they may be stretched and dried 
on curtain stretchers. If stretchers are not available, blankets 
should hang on the line until perfectly dry, and occasionally 
the water should be squeezed from the hanging ends. To press 
them, they should be folded evenly and carefully and wrapped 
in a sheet. They should be kept smooth and unwrinkled, a 
flat board placed over them, weighted heavily and allowed to 
remain thus for sev(M-al days. 

An excellent blanket wash may be made according to the 
following formula: * 

1 largo cake noutral soap 
3 quarts cold water 

2 tablespoons borax 
1^2 f^up wood alcohol 

* LauiKlcriiiii. L. Knv Baldcrston. 



THE LAUNDRY 271 

In using the above wash, the soap should be shaved into 
the cold water, and heated at a low temperature until it is dis- 
solved. It is then cooled and the borax added, mixed with the 
alcohol. The mixture should be poured into wide-mouthed 
jars, and kept air-tight. This quantity is sufficient for washing 
two pairs of blankets. 

Sweaters or loosely woven or knitted garments should be 
washed as follows: 

1. If the garment is silk, wool or cotton, follow the general directions 
for the laundering of garments made of these fabrics. A woven garment 
should be squeezed with the hands and lifted up and down in the water 
rather than rubbed on a board. 

2. Measure the length and width of the different parts of the garment 
before wetting it. For example, in the case of a sweater, measure the 
length of the front, the width of the front, the length of the back, and the 
width of the back in several places, the length of the sleeve along the seam, 
and the length of the shoulder. 

3. Spread one or more clean sheets, folded several times, on a flat surface 
such as a table, and place it where there is a good draft. Outdoors in 
the sunshine is a good place, if the garment to be dried is not too delicate 
in color. After the garment has been rinsed, place it with the back next 
to the folded sheet. Bring the fronts together, and place the sleeves in a 
nearly outstretched position. 

4. After the garment has been placed as suggested, test the measure- 
ments with those taken before it was wet. Stretch it until it gives the 
correct measurements. If necessary, pin it into place. 

5. When the garment is practically dry on the side exposed, turn it and 
let it dry on the other side. It may be necessary to turn the sweater several 
times. 

This method is much better than hanging the garment on a coat-hanger 
after washing, because the size may be kept the same as before washing. 

Washing silk. 

Silk should be washed in much the same way as wool. While 
it is not so strongly affected by soaps and alkalis as is wool, its 
gloss is destroyed by the use of strong cleansing agents. The 
delicacy of the fiber makes hard rubbing impossible, for it 
breaks the fibers and destroys not only their durability but 
also their silkiness. In wringing silk, it should be placed be- 
tween dry towels or heavy cloths and put through a loosely ad- 
justed wringer. It should be ironed on the wrong side while 



l'7l' .1 .i/.i.vr.w. or iiomi: makixc 

slill (|;iiii|), willi ;i iii(i(|cr:itcly hot iron. Silk is vory cjisily 
scorclu'd Mini, if the iron is too hot, the silk will he stiff, 'i'hc 
iron should !)(> pushed l);i('k and f(MMh with a \viip;{ilin{; motion 
to {iivc softness and pliability to the silk. It isf)ften host to iron 
silk under a cloth; to do so fi;iv(!s less body and a .softer finish. 
Ribbons, if of fjjood (juality, may be very succe.ssfully washed. 
"^I'o iron them they should be covered with a dry cloth and the 
iron moved frequently back and forth over the .surface of the 
cloth above them. 

Washing laces. 

It is often best to dry-clean fine laces, as they thicken slifjlitly 
in washing. To wash them, a warm neutral .soap-solution 
should be used to which ha.s been added ammonia or l)orax. 
The dirt is squeezed out by pressing the lace in the hands but 
should not ])c rubl)ed; rubbing breaks the delicate threads. A 
good way to wash fine lace is to baste it to strips of cheese-cloth, 
being careful to catch down all its points. It should then be 
put to soak overnight in warm soapy water containing a little 
borax or ammonia. It should be washed by squeezing, then 
rinsed free of soap. Old yellow lace may l)e l)leached by stretch- 
ing it, while wet, around a bottle, and standing it in the sun, 
rewetting the lace occasional^. Javclle water maj'^ be used to 
bleach lace. Lace may be stiffened by rinsing in a mixture of 
two tablespoons of alcohol to one cup of water; by rinsing in 
borax water, two tablespoons to a cup; or by using gum arable, 
one-eighth teaspoon to a cup of water. If a yellow color is 
desired, the lace may be dipped in coffee or tea. 

Black lace should be cleaned by squeezing it repeatedly in a 
mixture of one cup of strong coffee and one tablesjwon of 
ammonia. It should l)e rinsed in gum arable water made with 
coffee, to give natural stiffness. 

Lace curtains should l)e washed with as near an approach to 
the care given to lace as is practicable. They shoulil be clear- 
starched, stretched, and piinied out on .sheets, one curtain over 
another. If available, it is better to use curtain-stretchers 
than .sheets, but if care is taken to .square off the first curtain 



THE LAUNDRY 273 

and stretch it straight and even, good results may be obtained 
by pinning the curtains to sheets. 

BLEACHING 

Occasionally, even in the household, it may be necessary to 
supplement the natural bleaching process accomplished by 
sunshine, fresh air, and green grass, by the use of chemicals. 
If a garment has yellowed by age or by being packed away 
with starch in it, it may be expedient to use a chemical bleach. 

The best bleach to use is Javelle water, which should be made 
as follows : 

1 pound washing-soda 

1 quart boiling water 

J^ pound chloride of lime 

2 quarts cold water. 

Put soda in granite pan; add boiling water and stir until dissolved; let 
cool. 

Dissolve chloride of lime in cold water; let settle and pour the clear liquid 
into the soda; let settle. Pour off clear liquid, bottle, and put away in 
dark place. 

Use, mixed with equal parts or more of water, and do not let the garments 
stay in over 3^ hour. Rinse thoroughly in several waters and lastly in dilute 
ammonia water. 

Moisture is necessary if clothes are to be bleached by the 
action of the sun. After a garment dries, it should be made wet 
again and hung out. It may be necessary to repeat, the wetting 
operation a number of times before the yellow tinge yields. It 
is said that clothes are whitened if they are allowed to freeze 
out of doors on the line. The reason given for the bleaching 
action is that freezing causes the clothes to retain moisture, 
hence the time of their bleaching is prolonged. 

IRONING 

For ironing, the following equipment should be provided: a 
flat, firm, unwarped ironing-board or table, tightly covered with 
a blanket and clean sheet, securely fastened underneath; clean 
irons; an iron stand, which may well be a clean brick; two pieces 
of old cloth for cleaning irons; a piece of paper folded several 



271 .1 .u.i.vr.i/. or HOME m \i<i\r; 

liiiM's for testing irons; ;i piece of liceswiix c»r pMiafliii (iod in a 
clolli, for kccpiiiji; iioiis siiiootli; m howl of w.-itcr .-ind a clean 
cloili for iiKtisleiiiiiji, pMils dried \>y exposure to air. A lar^o 
paper should he spicad or a haskel place(| under the iroiiiiiji- 
hoard to receive the clothes while they are heiufj irf)ned. 

For ordinary ironiiifz; a j^ood liim surface is dosirahle. A thin 
woolen hiankot and an outside linen cover are sufficient. For 
embroideries or wool, a thick covering is f)etter, because the 
faliric should sink in tc) a soft foundation lo bring out the pattern 
in one case and to give a soft finish in the other. 

Method and order of ironing. 

Th(> following simple lules for ironing may be followed : 

Iron fiist that part of the garment which will be least mussed 
l)y fuithei' handling or in which a little wrinkling will not seri- 
ously interfere with good results. 

If the garment is trimmed, iron laces and embroideries first, 
as they dry out quickly because of their porous nature. 

Leave as much of a gai'ment folded as j^ossible, to keep it 
moist. Sometimes it may be convenient to la}' a piece of damp- 
ened cheese-cloth over any unironed \x\\\ to keep it moist. 
Figs. 52-55 give somoof the methodsof foldingvarious gannents. 

The method and order of ironing various articles is some- 
what as follows: 

Xij^ht clross(>s: Embroidery; sloeve.s; yoke; ])ody. 

Dniwor.s: Triinniint!;; tucks; body; band. 

Skirts: Rutfto; hem; body. 

Shirt-waists: Cuffs; eollar-ljand; sleeves; yoke; Ixxck; front. 

Silk waists: Iron as a shirt waist on the wronj? side while it is still damp. 

Embroideri(>s: Iron on wroiifz; side on a soft foundation, to allow the 
design to stand out. 

Laces: Iviy on a i)iece of flaiuifl covereil with a i)iece of cheese-cloth. 
Iron on the wronp; sid(>, and i)ull out points with the tip of the iron. Lace 
should be stretched and pinned out on a hard surface. Pull it out at 
each point and catch it down with a pin; or stretch it and roll it on a 
bottle. 

Tablecloths: I'se heavy irons, iron on both sides, iron partly dry on 
the wroiifi side and comj)lete the process on the right side, to bring out the 
])attern. Fold the selvages together first. Fold all edges evenly, except 



THE LAUNDRY 



275 



when folding the lengthwise folds in half. Draw the upper half back about 
}4 inch in making the last fold, or that part will be pushed out of place, 
giving an uneven edge. The same rule applies to sheets, napkins, handker- 
chiefs, and the like. Tablecloths may be folded lengthwise twice and 
then rolled to avoid creases. 

Naplcins, handkerchiefs, and towels: Iron and fold as for tablecloths. 

Sheets : The hems of sheets must be smoothly ironed. It is a good plan 
to iron only the hems when time is a consideration. 

Flannels: Iron after laying a dampened cheese-cloth over them. If 




, _ ....._^.) [ZP 

hv'T\'r{ jyrsx^n^ h-.rv--r<'A^ prTr^v^ 




Fig. 



-Methods of folding underwear. 



they are not covered with a damp cloth, iron them on the wrong side; 
have the iron only moderately hot. 

Pillowcases: Iron smooth. 

Colored garments: Iron on the wrong side, when practicable, as to do so 
prevents fading. Do not have irons too hot. 

Silk garments: Iron on the wrong side; to do so prevents shininess. 

After being ironed, each article should be hung on a frame 
or clotheshorse to dry and air before it is put away. If hung 



'2H\ 



.1 U.l.Vr.l/. or HOME M.\l\l\(! 



ill ;i poorly vciililnlccl room, the clotlics will have :i had odor. 

Spriiikliiij; may not he iicccssary when an iroiiiii^-macliinc 
is iisrd for iroiiiiifi, if the operator will remove the clothes from 
the line just at the rijiht time, that is. wiiiie they are still damp. 
'I'he process can he carried throutih so (piickly that it is unneces- 
sary to keep one jiarineiit damp while the otiier is Ijeiufi; ironed. 

KCjlll'MJONT FOR TIIH LAUNDRY 

It is always best, when po.ssihle, to have a separate room for 
laundry purposes. Much of the apparatus can tlien he made 




Fk;. 5.3. — A method of foldiiiK slicets and tablefloth,s. 

stationary and many little labor-saving conveniences devi.^ed. 
Some dairy farms have running water, drains, power, steam, 
and cement floors. It would be a simple matter on such a farm 
to equip a small room in the barn with the necessary laundry 
apparatus. Good litihtin.iz; (paRC 201) and good ventilation 
are (juite as necessary in the laundry as in other parts of the 
house. The floor and \valls should be of such a nature that 
they can be kept dry and clean with the least labor. ]Many 
of the sup;<j;estions for the arrangement of kitchen equipment 
(pages 101 to KM)) are e(iually applicable to the laundry. 

Hand-diiven machines aie effective lal)or-sav(Ms even though 
to a somewhat smaller degree than those lun by oth(>r power. 
Washing-machines are now on the market with wringer at- 
tached, which lun by power. On many farms the gasoline en- 
{•ine has already become a fixture for grinding corn, separating 



THE LAUNDRY 



277 




milk, and the like. The same source of power might also be 
used to lun the washing-machine and turn the wringer. If 
running water is brought to the barn, it should be continued to 
the house, and, if the water-power is sufficient, a water motor 
may be purchased that can be used for running the washing- 
machine. 

Washing-machine. 

The home laundry should be equipped with a washing-ma- 
chine and at least one stationary tub. If running water has not 
yet been introduced into the 
house and the barn, at least it 
is possible to provide a drain for 
the kitchen sink and the laundry 
tub. This makes easier the 
problem of getting rid of dirty 
water. 

Washing-machines in c 1 u d e Fig. 54 
five types: (1) The Dolly type, 
which cleans the clothes by agitation, (2) the friction type, 
somewhat like double washboards; (3) the two-cylinder type, 
which cleans the clothes by agitation; (4) the suction washers, 
including the simple hand machines; (5) the cradle type which 
rocks and throws the clothes from side to side. A washing- 
machine should never be overloaded if it is to do good work; 
and the process should not be unduly hurried. Clothes should 
be removed carefully from the machine to prevent tearing. 
Cheese-cloth or net bags for small pieces and fine materials save 
trouble. 

Ironing-ma chine . 

The ironing-machine, or, as it is often called, the mangle, is 
another device for making laundry work easier. It may suc- 
cessfully take the place of the hand iron for a larger part of the 
family ironing. There are two types of ironing-machines on the 
market: (1) cold-roll ironing-machines, in which the rollers be- 
tween which the garment passes are made of wood and are un- 



Another method of folding 
sheets. 



'J7S 



,1 .\/.i.vr.w. or iin.Mi: mak/xc 



lic;it('(l, (Icpciidiiiji oil llicir wci^lil :iii<l prc-siirc fo rciii(»V(> 
wrinkles; {'2) liot-roll iioniii^-niMcliiiics, in wliicli oiif roll is 
cold ;iii(l is cox'crcd with ;i hiaiikcl ;ind clolli, just as for an 
ironin^i-hoard, and the other roil or concave j)lale is niiule of 
smooth iron and is heated. The cold roll revolves iiKuinst the 
heated metal plate. This is the more economical and satisfac- 
tory ironing-machine, although its original cost is greater. The 







Fig. 55. — A mctlunl of folding niglitdrc'tiSL's and shirts. 

hot-roll machine may be heated by gas, or gasoline by a slight 
change involving a small expense. If power is available, the 
machine may be run by power. The use of one of these machines 
reduces greatly the time required to iron in the usual way. 
(Jarments with gathers and sleeves cannot be thus ironed to 
look jierfectly smooth and well shaped, l)Ut all bed and talile 
linen, towels, handkerchiefs, stockings, such underwear as may 
not require perfect smoothness, kitchen aprons and the hke, 
may l)e done successfully and satisfactorily'. 

Irons. 

A number of irons are now on the market for summer use 
when it is not desirable to have sufhcient tire in the range to 



THE LAUNDRY 279 

heat the irons. Some of these are elect lic irons, gas irons, and 
flenatured-alcohol irons. 

For general laundiy purposes, one size of the ordinary sadiron 
is sufficient, but it is advisable to put several irons into a well- 
equipped laundry, to use for the various kinds of work 
to be done. Among them should be heavy, medium heavy, 
and small-pointed irons, the last for ironing ruffles and 
laces. 

A frequent cause of poor ironing is the condition of the irons. 
They must be kept clean and free from rust to do good work. 
New irons should be heated thoroughly and rubbed with wax 
or grease before using. If irons are to be put away for any 
length of time, they should be covered with a thin coating of 
vaseline, clean grease, or paraffin, or wrapped in waxed paper. 
If starch cooks on, it should be removed immediately with a 
dull knife. If irons become dirty from careless use, or from being 
left on the stove during the preparation of the meals, they 
should be thoroughly washed with soap and water and care- 
fully dried. To keep irons smooth while using them, they 
should be rubbed with wax or paraffin and wiped immediately 
with a clean cloth. They improve with wear, if they have good 
treatment. 

Tubs. 

Although a washing-machine may be used, there should be one 
or more tubs in a laundry. Stationary tubs are best, even 
though running water is not available, for some simple method 
of draining them can be devised. The tubs are best made of 
porcelain, enameled iron, or alberine stone. White tubs are a 
good background for bluing clothes. Wooden tubs may be 
more cheaply constructed; but there is danger of the wooden 
tub becoming unsanitary from careless handling. 

A stationary tub should always be set with regard to the 
height of the person who is to use it most. Many tubs are 
set far too low and necessitate too much back bending on the 
part of the operator. 

If stationary tubs are not available, fiber tubs are the best 



280 -I .u.i.vr.w. or iio.Mr: mm<i\<; 

to l)iiy lor the l;iiiii(li\-, ;is llic\' arc li^lil and easy to care for. 
( lalvanizi'd iron ami wooden tulis arc cheaper. 

IjiiiikIi!/ Ix iicIi. 

'I'lic laundry l)cncli for holding tiil)S should l)c of the proper 
hcifiht. Most henches are fai' too low. involving elTort out of 
proj)ortion (o the task t(^ he accomplished. 

Wri7}(j(r. 

A wringer should be a part of the launchy equipment, and the 
best on the market is always the chea])cst. After a wringer i.s 
used, it should be carefully dried antl the screws pressing the roll- 
ers should be loosened. When not in use. it should be kept cov- 




FiG. 5G. — A sleeve-board. 

ered with a cloth to protect it from dust and dirt. The bearings 
should be oiled occasionally. Oil dissolves rul)ber, and that 
property of oil is taken advantage of in cleaning the rubber 
rollers. They are carefully wiped with a little kerosene which 
eats away a thin film of the rubber, exposing a fresh surface. 
The operation should not be performed frequently, however, 
and the oil should l)e carefully and completely removed im- 
mediately after its use. 

Ironing-board. 

An ironing-board that has its broader end attached by hinges 
to the wall is a great convenience, for then it is always in place 
and can be put out of the way by folding up against the wall. 

Ironing-blanket. 

The ironing-])lanlvet and sheet should be put on smoothly 
and tacked .securely under the l>oar(l, using short brass-headed 



THE LAUNDRY 



281 



tacks. It is a good plan to have a separate blanket and sheet 
also, which fit the table used in the laundry, because a table 
is a convenient place for ironing large pieces. The ironing 
sheet should be kept clean. 

Sleeve-hoard. 

A sleeve-board (Fig. 56) is good not only for sleeves, but 
for gathers and for small dresses. It is not difficult to manu- 
facture at home. 

Character of utensils. 

As far as possible, all utensils that are to come in contact 
with clothing or to contain material to be used on the clothing, 
should be non-rustable. Tinware is not good for laundry use 
because of the ease with which it rusts. The boiler should 
have a copper bottom at least, and is best made entirely of 
copper. It then conducts heat better and does not rust. 

Other equipment and supplies. 

The miscellaneous equipment necessary for efficient laundry 
'work is given in the following list : 



Rubbing-board 
Wooden spoon 
Dipper 

Dishpan, enamel 
Tea kettle 
Measuring cup 
Quart measure 
Iron holder 
Teaspoon 
Clothes basket 
Strainer for starch 
Beeswax or paraffin wrapped in 
cloths to keep irons smooth 



Clothes-pins 

References 
Balderston, L. Ray. Laimdering. 
Chambers, Mary D. A Guide to Laundry Work. 



Laundry bags 

Clothes stick 

Pail, enamel or fiber, for emptying 

water and carrying clothes 
2 saucepans, enamel, one for starch 

and one for soap solution 
Iron stand 
Tablespoon 
Case knife 
Clothes-horse 
Scrubbing brushes 
Clothes-pin aprons, best made of 

ticking 



CHAPTER Mil 
STAIN REMOVAL* 

With some stains prompt troatinont is nocessarj' in order to 
save the article in question from being riiine(l, and in most cases 
it is (lesiral)le, since all stains are removed more easily when 
fresh. Changes in the character of the stain, brought about 
by drying, exposure to air, washing, ironing, or in other ways, 
often make it necessary to use chemicals in removing old stains, 
whereas in man}' cases much simpler methods are successful 
if the stains are treated when fresh. 

The nature of a stain shoukl be known, if possiljle, before 
its removal is attempted, since this determines the treatment 
to be adopted. Moreover, if an unsuitable stain-remover is 
used, the stain may be "set" so that its removal l)econies dif-- 
ficult or even impossible. For example, if hot water, which 
easily removes most fresh fruit stains, is applied to stains con- 
taining protein, such as stains of milk, blood, eggs, or meat 
juice, it coagulates the all)umin in the fibers of the cloth 
and makes it extremely difficult to remove. Similarly, soap, 
which aids in the removal of grease spots, sets many fruit 
stains. 

The Jcind of fal)ric upon which the stain occurs also should 
be known. The method of treatment adopted depends as much 
on the nature, color, weave, finish, and weight of the fai)ric as 
on the kind of stain. Cotton and linen are destroyed by strong 

* Tliis cliaptcr contains almost tlio whole of l''arii\crs' Bull. S(il, Rcinoval 
of Stains from Clothing and Other Textiles, iiy Harold L. Laufj; and .Vnna 
M. Whittelsey of the l'. S. Dej)!. of A^r. Since this huiietin is fiie rejiort 
of the most extensive anil careful work on stain removal that has heeii 
done for the benefit of hou.sckeepers, it has been only slightly adapted for 
reprinting here. 

282 



STAIN REMOVAL 283 

acids and attacked to some extent even by weaker ones. Con- 
centratetl acids, therefore, sliould never be used in removing 
stains from these fal)rics, and when dikite acids are used they 
should be neutralized afterwards with a suitable alkali or 
removed by thorough rinsing; otherwise the acid may become 
concentrated on drying and destroy the fibers. Generally 
speaking, alkalis do not attack cotton or linen fabrics to the 
extent that acids do. However, long-continued or repeated 
exposure to alkalis, especially in hot solution, weakens the fi- 
bers. The damage to fabrics resulting from the careless use of 
strongly alkaline soaps, washing powders, washing-soda, or 
lye, is well known to the housekeeper. 

Wool and silk, being more delicate than cotton and linen, re- 
quire more careful treatment. The use of very hot water must 
be avoided, since it turns both wool and silk yellow, shrinks 
wool, and weakens silk and injures its finish. These materials 
also will not stand much rul^bing, as this felts together the 
wool fibers and results in a shrinking or thickening of the ma- 
terial, while the silk fabrics, as a rule, are too delicate to stand 
much rubbing without breaking or separating the fibers. Both 
wool and silk are dissolved by strong alkalis and are injured 
even by washing-soda or strongly alkaline soap. The only 
alkalis which should be used in laundering or removing stains 
from wool and silk are the milder ones like borax or dilute solu- 
tions of ammonia. Acids, with the exception of nitric which 
weakens and turns the fibers yellow, do not attack wool and 
silk readily. 

In general it is more difficult to remove stains from wool and 
silk than from cotton or linen. In removing stains from ma- 
terials made from two or more kinds of fibers, such as silk and 
cotton mixtures, the effects of the stain-removers on all of the 
fibers should be considered. No chemical should be used which 
would injure the most delicate of the fibers present. 

It is also much more difficult to remove stains from colored 
than from white materials, for the reason that most of the 
bleaching agents which must be used to remove persistent stains 
are likely to destroy the color of the material as well. 



284 A MAMAL or no Mi: w.iA/vr; 

MKTIIODS Foil TUKATMKNT OK SIAINS I.N OKNKUAL 

Tlic following p;iiM^;i;i|)lis deal with met hods and icaj^ciils 
commonly used in I he rnndxal ol a miniltci- <it slains. To save 
repetition, these are p;iven heic in detail and reference is made 
to tliem in deaHng with the particular slains in later pajj;es. 

Laundering. 

Ordinaiy launderinfj;, mentioned frequently as a method for 
removing stains, sliould he done a« follows: First, soak the 
stained portion in cold or lukewarm water, rubbing the stain 
with a neutral soap if necessaiy. Follow this hy thorough 
rinsing in clean water, after which the article may he laundered 
as usual. This method should he used only for cotton and linen 
(white or fast colors) and the so-called wash silks and washable^ 
woolens. If the materials are delicate, they should be sponged 
according to the following directions. 

S'pomjing. 

Sponging is apphcable to all fal)rics, but especially to deli- 
cate materials or colors which ordinary laundering might in- 
jure. The stained article should be spread on a flat surface in 
a good light, and beneath the stain a cloth folded into several 
thicknesses or clean white blotting paper should l)e placed to 
absorb the superfluous liquid. The pad nuist be changed for a 
fresh one as soon as it becomes soiled. The sponging should be 
done with a clean, soft lintless cloth (preferal)ly of the same 
material as that stained) and renewed as frequently as may be 
necessary. The stained material should be laid with the wrong 
side up and the water applied to the back, so that the foreign 
substances can be washed from the fibers onto the pad without 
having to pass through the material. 

Applicatio?i of chemicals. 

Chemicals should not be used until wat(M- or laundeiing has 
been tried, for they attack the fibers of the cloth as well as the 
stain. 

There are a few conunon chemicals which are necessary in 
removing some stains, and these should be kept in e:-eiy house- 



STAIN REMOVAL 285 

hold. A good plan is to have a small cupboard in the laundry 
where these chemicals may be kept together with the utensils 
used in applying them. As some of these chemicals are poison- 
ous, they should not be kept in the family medicine cabinet or 
pantry. Chemicals most commonly used in removing stains 
are Javelle water (p. 273), potassium permanganate (solu- 
tion), oxalic acid, ammonia water, hydrogen peroxide, French 
chalk, and cream of tartar. These chemicals may be bought 
at any drug store. 

With these chemicals should be kept some of the utensils 
used in applying them; such as a medium-sized bowl, a med- 
icine-dropper, a glass rod with rounded ends, several pads of 
cheese-cloth or old muslin, and a small sponge. 

If the effect of the stain-remover on the fiber or color is not 
known, it should be tried by applying a little to a sample or 
to an unexposed portion of the goods. Sometimes it is best 
to remove the stain even if some of the color is removed also, 
for the color often may be restored by careful tinting. 

One should work rapidly when using chemicals to remove 
stains, so as to give them as little time as possible to act on 
the textile fibers. Many brief applications of the chemicals, 
with rinsing or neutralization after each application, are pref- 
erable to the practice of allowing them to remain on the stain 
for a long time. The stained portion of the garment should be 
stretched over a bowl of clean water and the chemical applied 
with a medicine-dropper. The chemicals may be rinsed out 
quickly by dipping in the clean water. Another method is 
to place the stained portion over a pad of folded cloth and ap- 
ply the chemical with a glass rod. The rinsing or neutralizing 
always must be thorough. 

Javelle water may be used successfully in removing a num- 
ber of stains, but should be applied only to uncolored cotton 
or linen materials, since it bleaches colors and rots silk or wool. 
In treating stains with Javelle water, the stained portion should 
be stretched over a ])Owl filled with water and the Javelle water 
applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper. The Javelle water 
should not be allowed to remain in contact with the stain for 



2S() .1 M.WI .\L OF HOME MAKfXC 

iiioic than (tiic iiiimitr ainl tlicii oxalic-acid solution should ho 
applied to neutralize the .laveile water and the stain rinsed hy 
dippinu: in the howl of water. 

Coiniuercial ink-removers are similar in action to .lavclle 
water and arc vcr}' convenient for removing many stains he- 
sides ink spots. 

Potassium pormanp;anate can l)e used in removing stains 
from all white fahrics. It also may he used successfully upf)n 
many colored materials, hut should always he tried first on 
an unexposed portion of the {roods, to determine its effect on 
the dye. It does not harm delicate fibers, provided it is used 
with reasonable care. One should first remove as much of the 
stain as possible l)y spon{i;in^ or washing with cold water. The 
permanganate should be j^repared and used as follows: Dis- 
solve 1 teaspoonful of the cry.stals in a pint of w'ater and apply 
a Iittl(> of this to the stain with a medicine-tlropper, a gla.ss rod, 
or a clean cork, and allow it to remain for about five minutes. 
Remove any pink or l)ro\vn stain left by tiie permanganate, 
by appl^ying one of the following chemicals: 1. Hydrogen per- 
oxide, made slightly acid (if not already so) with oxalic acid. 
One drop of the acid usually is enough to acidify 3 tea.spoons 
of the peroxide. 2. Oxalic acid in saturates! solution or lemon 
juice for cotton, linen, or silk. Hj'drogen peroxide is more sat- 
isfactory for wool. The treatment should be followed by thor- 
ough rinsing. One or more repetitions of this treatment may 
be necessary in the case of persistent stains. 

Oxalic acid is poisonous and should be used carefully; the 
bottle in which it is kept must be marked '"Poison" and kept 
out of the reach of children. To prepare a solution of oxalic 
acid for use, as man}^ of the crystals of the acid as i)ossil)le 
should be dissolved in a j)int of lukewarm water. This should 
be put into a bottle, stoppered tightly, and used as needed. This 
solution nia\- be applied to the stain with a medic-ine-dropper 
or glass rod and after allowing it to remain for a few minutes 
the garment should be rinsed thoroughly in clean water. 

Hydrogen peroxide, as obtained foi- medicinal purposes, usu- 
ally is made slightly acid, to give it l)etter keeping (juality. 



STAIN REMOVAL 287 

For use in removing stains a small amount of the peroxide should 
be made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Since hydrogen per- 
oxide affects the fiber also, in the case of cotton and linen ma- 
terials, it must be followed by very careful rinsing. It may be 
applied to the stain with a medicine-dropper, a glass rod, or 
a clean cork, or the stain sp'onged with it. The method of 
using it in neutralizing potassium permanganate is described 
above. 

SPECIFIC METHODS FOR INDIVIDUAL STAINS 

In cases in which the nature of the stain is not known, it 
should be attacked first by sponging with cold water, provided, 
however, that the fabric would not be injured by water. If the 
stain is not removed by cold or warm water, chemicals should 
then be applied. Often the behavior of a stain, when treated 
with cold water, will give some indication of its nature; for 
example, a grease spot will not absorb water. Hot water should 
be avoided in treating unknown stains until after other sub- 
stances have been tried, since hot water will set many stains 
and make their removal more difficult. 

Adds. 

With the exception of nitric acid, acids do not generally produce stains 
upon white fabrics but often change or destroy the color of dyed materials. 
However, cotton and linen fil:)ers are destroyed readily by some acids, 
especially by those of greater concentration or strength. Dilute acids 
do not attack wool and silk fibers to any great extent unless they are 
allowed to dry on the cloth and become concentrated, but they do some- 
times affect the color of the fibers. It is essential, therefore, that acid 
spots on textiles be neutralized at once by some alkaline solution. For 
this purpose any one of the following should give good results: 

1. Water. Rinse the spot several times in a large volume of water. 
This treatment serves to stop any further action of the acid on the fabric, 
but usually has no effect on any discoloration due to the acid. 

2. An alkaline substance, such as washing-soda, ammonia, or borax. 
Apply an alkali to the acid spot. The alkali forms a salt with the acid 
and this must be removed later by rinsing or sponging with water. The 
acid should be neutralized coinpletely with thi^ alkali or the discoloration 
may reappear after a wliilc. Either of the following alkalis may be used: 
(a) Ammonia. If the spot is slight, neutralize it by holding it in the fumes 
from an open bottle of strong ammonia. (6) Sodium l)icarbonate (l)aking 
soda). Sprinkle this on the stain — on both sides, if possible — moisten 



288 .t MA. MM. OF ii().\ir: ]!.\i<i\(; 

with wutcr, iiiul allow In slaiid until the acid is iiciitrali/.<-(l l>liowii in 
this casf Ity tlic ci-a-sirig of tlu' ('tTcrvcscfiirc); and remove the cxfcss l>y 
rinsing; with water. 

Dilute alkalis have little elTeet on cotton and linen, i)ut strong alkalis 
cause the fibers to swell and heeome" yellow, and the cloth to contract. 
The fiber, however, is not weakened unless the alkali is allowed to remain 
a lonn time upon the cloth or to l)econie very concentrated throuj^h eva|)- 
oration. Wool and silk, on the other hand, are yellowed or destroyed by 
strong alkalis even in dilute .solutions. Even if the fiber is not affected 
by the alkali, the color may be changed or destroyed. It is iinj)ortant, 
therefore, to neutralize alkali spots at once. Any of the following agents 
may be used: 

1. Water. Rinse thoroughly. Frequently this is sufficient in the case 
of such alkalis as washing-soda and ammonia. 

2. A mild acid. Apply the acid with a cloth until the fabric changes 
back to its original color, or until the stain is .slightly acid as shown liy 
the odor or sour taste. Then rinse the fal)ric thoroughly in water. In 
the case of colored goods it is helpful to rub the stain dry, using a piece 
of the same material as the; stained fabric, if po.ssiblc. Use either of the 
following mild acids: 

(a) Lemon juice. Squeeze the juice on the stain. As long as the .spot 
remains alkaline the juice is a bright yellow in color, but when the spot 
becomes acid the color disappears almost entirely. Apply the lemon juice 
until this color change takes place. 

(b) Vinegar. If the vinegar itself leaves a spot, remove it by sponging 
with water. 

Blood. 

Any of the following agents may be used: 

1. Cold or lukewarm water. Either soak the i)lood stains or rub them 
in the water until they turn light l)rown in color; that is, until most of the 
coloring matter is dis.solved. Then wash the materia! in hot water, as 
in the ordinary jjrocess of laundering. For stains on silk or wool, sponge in 
cold or lukewarm water. 

2. Soap (for washable materials). Rub the stained portions with soap 
and place in cold water, either allowing them to stand in it until llie stains 
are loosened or bringing the water very ,sh)wly to th(> I)oiling point. 

3. Ammonia (for washable materials). Use about I ounce (2 tablespoon- 
fuls) of hou.sehold ammonia to 1 gallon of water. Saak the stains in this 
until they are loosened ;ind then wash in the usual manner. For old 
stains ammonia is .somewhat more satisfactory tlian soap. 

4. Hydrogen pero.xide. Sjionging with a little hydrogen peroxide often 
will remove the last traces of blood stains after the main part has been 



STAIN REMOVAL 289 

removed as described in No. 1 above. This agent can be used on wool 
and silk, provided it does not injure the color of the material. 

5. Raw starcli mixed with cold water to a paste is efficient for stains on 
thick materials, such as flannel and blankets, which cannot conveniently 
be soaked in water. Apply the paste thickly to the stain and brush it 
away when it becomes dry. Repeat the application until the stain is 
removed. 

Bluing. 

Three types of laundry bluing are in common use, namely, ultramarine, 
Prussian, and aniline blues. Since they differ chemically, spots due to them 
require different treatment. It is not difficult to determine to which type 
a blue belongs, and methods for doing this are suggested in the following 
paragraphs : 

The commercial blues which come in balls or blocks with directions to 
wrap them in a piece of flannel or other cloth and shake them about in 
the water to be blued are generally ultramarine. To remove such stains, 
the following procedure may be followed: 

1. Cold water. Soak fresh stains or rinse them in an abundance of 
cold water. 

2. Soap and water. Wash the stains as in ordinary laundering, with 
an abundance of soap, and rub thoroughly. This treatment will remove 
stains which are not removed by soaking. 

Liquid bluing, which is used commonly in the home laundry, usually is 
a Prussian blue. It is greenish-blue in color and soluble in water. Clothes 
are occasionally overblued with Prussian, as with other bluings, or may 
become streaked with the bluing if it has not been mixed evenly with the 
water. To overcome this condition the following treatment is recom- 
mended : 

1. Cold water. Rinse the stains in an abundance of cold water. This 
is effective only for very fresh stains. 

2. Boiling water. Boil the stained material for about half an hour, 
or until the stains disappear. 

Prussian blue is sometimes the cause of yellow discolorations or spots 
upon white clothes. If the clothes are not rinsed free from strong soap, 
washing-soda, or other alkali used in washing, before they are blued with 
Prussian blue, the alkali remaining on the clothes precipitates ferric hy- 
droxide from the bluing which is deposited upon the clothes. This is set 
by subsequent drying and ironing, and is identical, chemically, with iron- 
rust. For methods of removing these stains, see " iron rust " staina, 
page 297. 

The aniline or coal-tar blues probably are used less commonly in the 
household than the other blues, but are employed frequently in commercial 
laundries. They are sold usually in the form of small crystals or of a 
powder having a dark blue or iridescent color and are soluble in water. 
To remove aniline blues, one of the following methods should be used: 



200 .1 MAXIM, or llOMi: MAKIXC 

I. ('iil<l water. Si)ak tin- sImimciI inatiTial fur sfviial lioiirs or ovcrnijjiit. 
■_'. liuiliiin Wiiti-r. H<til the stains fur 1') rniniitcs itr until they (liMi|)|>car. 

liiitln-. 

Stains dm- to Ixitlcr arc essentially t;rease spots and should receive the 
same treatment. 

Canillc iriix {colored). 

These .stains consist of jjarafTin in which an oruanic dj'o i.s (li.ssolvfHl 
Remove the paraffin as completely as j)ossii)le (pa^e li(K)), and then dis.soIvo 
the colorinf!; matter remainiiiK in the fil)er hy sponfiin^ it with alcohol. 
If a slij^lit grea.se spot still remains, remove it hy siMJiiginn with .soap and 
water. 

C'liocohtlv and cocoa. 

For removin}! chocolate" and cocoa stains the following agents are satis- 
factory: 

1. Soap and hot water (ordinary laundering; see |)age 2S4). 

2. Borax and cold water. S|)rinkle the stains with liorax and soak 
them in cold water, then rinse them thoroughly in boiling water. This 
method is api)lical)le only to stains on wa.shal)le materials. 

3. Luk(>warm water. For stains on delicate fabrics, sponge with luke- 
warm water. 

Coffee. 

Cream in the coffee sometimes necessitates the use of grea.se solvents in 
addition to other reagents. 

One of the following agents .should be employed: 

1. Soap and water. Fr(>sh stains and most okl ones on wa.shable ma- 
terials can be removed by ortiinary laundering. A slight trace of the 
stain sometimes remains in the case of very heavy or old stains. Drying 
the material in the svm freciuently heljis to remove the last traces. 

2. Potassium permanganate. Slight stains remaining after treatment 
with soap and water can be removed with this agent. 

3. Boiling water, poured on the stain from a height of 2 or 3 feet. This 
is effective on stains which are not more than a few hours old. 

4. Cold or lukewarm water. Sponge the stains from wool or silk ma- 
terials. If a grease spot from cream remains after the spot has dried, 
remove it by the use of grease .solvents. 

5. Damp cloths and a hot iron. Fairly good results are obtained in 
removing small coffee stains from light-colored silk material by placing 
the stain between clean, damp cloths and pressing the whole with a hot 
iron. 

Dye and running colors. 

As the dyes of textiles differ greatly in chemical composition, different 
methods mu.st be tried, begiiming with the simplest, until the stains 
disappear. For washable materials, No. I may be tried. 



STAIN REMOVAL 291 

1. Cold or warm water and sunlight, for stains on washable materials. 
Rinse the stains in water, or soak them (for 10 or 12 hours, if necessary), 
and then dry them in the sun. Repeat the treatment if the stains are not 
removed entirely by the first treatment. Spots on woolen and silk ma- 
terials sometimes may be removed by soaking or washing in cold water. 

2. Javelle water. 

3. Potassium permanganate. 

4. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia, for stains 
on white silk or wool. Soak the stains in this solution until they disappear, 
and then rinse thoroughly. 

Egg. 

Egg stains should be washed or sponged with cold or lukewarm water 
before any hot water is applied. Sometimes a large part of the stain 
hardens on the surface of the material and may be scraped off with a blunt 
knife. 

One of the following agents should be used to remove egg stains: 

1. Cold water followed by hot water and soap, as in ordinary laun- 
dering. 

2. Cold water followed by a grease solvent. Allow the stained place to 
dry after being sponged with cold water. Then apply the grease solvent 
(pages 292 to 293). 

Fly paper (sticky). 

See "resinous substances," page 301. Turpentine and kerosene are 
especially effective. 

Fruits and berries (fresh). 

Practically all fruit stains, when they are fresh and still moist, can be 
removed with boiling or even warm water. After they have dried, they 
become much more difficult to remove. The color of some materials may 
be affected by the organic acids present in certain fruits like the grapefruit 
and lemon. In such cases the color can generally be restored by the methods 
used for acid stains. 

The following agents are satisfactory for fruit or berry stains: 

1. Boiling water, for white or fast-colored washal^le materials. Stretch 
the stained material over a bowl or other vessel, holding it by a string or 
an elastic band, if necessary, and pour boiling water upon it from a tea- 
kettle held at a height of 3 or 4 feet so that the water strikes the stain with 
some force. With some stains, especially those in which fruit pulp was 
present, a little rubbing alternat(>d with apjilications of boiling water is 
helpful. A stain remaining after this treatment frequently can 1)e bleached 
by hanging the wet material in the sun to dry. 

2. Warm water, for silk, wool, and other delicate materials. Sponge the 
stains. 

3. Lemon juice and sunlight. Stains remaining after treatment with 



2!)2 .1 MAM AL OF IJOMK MAKIXC 

l)nilinn water can often lie l)ieaelie(l liy iiiDisteiiinn willi lemon juiee and 
I'xposinn to the l)rinlit siinlifilil. 

4. I^'inon juiee or (txalic acid. A stain wliicli turns blue or ^ray and 
cannot he removed readily by boilinn water sometimes ean l)e loosened 
by moisteuinn with a little aeid, which restores its oriRinal color and renders 
it more easily soluble in the boiling water. If necessary, apjjly the acid 
several times, alternatiiifi with boiiinu water. 

5. Potassium permanganate (p. iJStt). Treat the stains first with boiling 
water (sec No. 1). 

(j. Javelle water (p. 285). 

7. Hydrogen peroxide made slightly alkaline with ammonia. Stains re- 
maining on silk or wool (white or fast color) after spon^^in^ with warm 
water frequently can be removed with a little hydrogen peroxide. 

8. Warm water as in No. 2, followed by alcohol. Sponge the spots 
(p. 284). 

Fruils and berries (cooked). 

In many ca.ses (;hanges in cooking render the stains from cooked fruit 
much easier to remove than those of fresh fruit. In fact, the\' often are 
removed from a fabric by ordinary laundering. Stains from some cooked 
fruits, however, especially tlu- dark red and purple fruits and berries, such 
as cranberries and l)lack raspberries, are similar to the fresh fruit stains 
in being set l)y alkaline substances. 

One of the following agents should be employed: 

1. Boiling water (see No. 1, under "fresh fruit stains"). 

2. Warm water. Sponge delicate fabrics. 

3. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This does not apply to the 
dark-colored (red or purple) fruits and berries. Treat them in the same 
way as fresh fruit. 

Glue. 

One of the following agents should be used in removing glue spots: 

1. Water. Either soak the spot in warm water or, if small, sponge it. 
Occasionally it is necessary to boil tb.e stained material. 

2. Vinegar. Sponge the spot or soak it in vinegar. 

Grass and other fresh green foliage. 

One of the following agents .should be used in removing stains of this 
character: 

1. Hot water and soaj), as in ordinary lainidoring. Remove the stain 
mechanically, l)y thorough rubl)ing. 

2. drain or wood alcohol. Apjily l)y sponging. Tiiis is especially useful 
upon materials which laundering might injure. 

Grease. 

Sometimes it is possible to .scrape or wijx' much of the adhering grease 
from a stained material. 



STAIN REMOVAL 293 

One of the following agents should be used in removing grease spots: 

1 . Warm water and soap, as in ordinary laundering. Grease spots usually 
can be removed from washable materials in this way, provided care is 
taken to rub the particular spot thoroughly. Soaps containing naphtha 
or kerosene o.re efficient. 

2. Absorbent substances — blotting paper, fuller's earth, brown paper, 
French chalk, powdered magnesia, or white talcum powder, for fine ma- 
terials; cornmeal or salt, for carpets, rugs, and other coarse materials. 
The use of absorbents generally is effective only on spots of grease or oil 
unmixed with particles of dirt or metal. The advantages of using them 
are that the fabric is not wet and there is no danger of leaving a ring, as 
in the case of grease solvents. In using an absorbent, such as a clean blotter 
or a piece of unglazed brown paper, lay it on each side of the stain and 
apply a warm iron. The grease is melted and is absorbed by the paper. 
To use the absorbent powders, lay the stained fabric upon a flat surface 
and spread a layer of the absorbent over the stain and work it around 
gently so as not to pull the fibers. As soon as it becomes gummy, shake 
or brush it off and repeat the process until the bulk of the stain is removed. 
Then apply another layer of the absorbent and allow it to remain over- 
night, or longer if necessary. This removes all traces of the stain, and 
in the case of slight stains the preliminary treatment is unnecessary. Then 
dust or brush off the absorbent thoroughly. If it is not convenient to let 
the stain stand overnight, place a layer of cloth or brown paper over the 
absorbent and apply a warm (not hot) iron for several minutes. In the 
case of stains made by solid fats, which must be melted before they can be 
absorbed, the use of the warm iron is necessary. 

3. Organic solvents. Chloroform, ether, and gasoline or naphtha. The 
first is the safest to use, since it is not inflammable. It is a better solvent 
of tarry substances than is ether or gasoline, and therefore more satisfactory 
for general use. Gasoline and naphtha are obtained easily and are com- 
paratively inexpensive, but they are very inflammable and likely to con- 
tain impurities and to leave an odor in the cleaned fabric. Ether is ex- 
pensive and inflammable, but it is clean, and usually it leaves no odor. 
The greatest care should be taken in using inflammable solvents. It is 
best to use them in a shady place out of doors, and if in the house by an 
open window and away from all flames. Place a pad of clean cloth or a 
white blotter beneath the stain and change it as soon as it becomes soiled. 
Sponge the stain with a clean cloth, preferably a piece like the stained 
material, moistened with the solvent. To prevent the spreading of the 
grease and solvent, it is best to use small amounts of the solvent at a time 
and to work from the outside of the spot toward the center. It is well also 
to surround the stain with a ring of French chalk or any of the absorbents 
mentioned in No. 2, and to rub the stain with a clean cloth until it is 
thoroughly dry. 

In removing grease spots which contain dirt or fine particles of metal, 



2'.tl .1 MAM'AL OF HOME M.XKlSd 

llinr<' nililuilti .iml ;i freer use of llie solvent lire lieee>s.ity. It is l)esl tu 
.•iliply tliesdlveiit from llie w roiiK side of llie iii.ilerial, so lli.it the particle 
will lie washed iiieclianieally from llie lihers onto tlie pad of cloth placed 
iiiiderneatli. If the spot does tiol yield to this treatment, inimers<- it in 
a small howl of the solvent and hrush it gently with a small, soft hrtish. 
The hnishinn serves to loosen the insoluhle |)arlicles, which then fall to 
the hottom of the bowl. 

In general, when the stained |)larn must he dipped in the solvent, it i- 
more satisfactory to immerse the whole article finally in c-lean solvent, 
which prevents the formation of rings. If sufficient solvent is not at haml 
for this, tlie ring usually can he removed l)y careful and patient sponging 
with small (luaritities of fresh solvent, taking clean cloths, pads, or blotters, 
as suggested above, and working from the wrong side of the material. 

4. An absorbent (sec No. 2) mixed with a solvent (see No. 3) in the form 
of a thick paste. The white absorbents d'Yciich chalk or magnesia) are 
most satisfactory. Spread the paste over the spot, leave it until thoroughly 
dry, and brush it off. Repeat this treatment if necessary. The spreading 
of the .solvent and the formation of a ring will be avoided to a consideralile 
extent in tliis way. The method is especially u.seful f(jr cleaning light- 
colored luiwashablc! materials, laces, and the like. 

Gums. 

See "resinous substances," page 301. 

Ice creaJti. 

One of the following agents may Ite em])Ioyed in removing ice-cream 
stains: 

1. Soap and water as in ordinary laundering. Use this for wash ma- 
terials in the ca.se of stains in which no chocolate or highly colored fruit or 
other substance is present. 

2. Cool or lukewarm water, followed by agents u.sed in removing grea.se 
spots. Sponge the stains thoroughly with water. If, on drj'ing, a greiusc 
spot from the cream remains, remove it by any of the methods suggested 
for "grease spots," (page 292). 

3. Agents suggested under "fruit and berries (fresh)," "fruit and lierries 
(cooked)," "coffee," "chocolate and cocoa," and the Uke, according to 
the stain in question. 

Indelible (copying) pencil inarks. 

The dye and the reagents used to remove such stains may vary with 
different makes of pencils, but for those us(>d in these experiments the 
following reagents arc .satisfactory: 

1. Alcohol (grain or wood). Soak the stains for a few minutes or until 
they are di.s.solved. The graphite marks then nMuain, but can be removed 
by washing with .soap and water. The alcohol is effective also after the.se 
stains have been washed ami ironed. 



STAIN REMOVAL 295 

2. Javcllo water. This destroys the dye. Remove the graphite either 
before or after applying tliis ageut by washing with soap aud water. 

Ink (India). 

The treatment for removing India ink from textiles is the same as for 
"ink (printing)" (p. 295). 

Ink (marking). 

So-called "indelible" or "marking" inks are of two common types, 
namely, that containing silver nitrate or other silver compound and that 
with an organic dye, usually "aniline black," as its basis. 

Silver nitrate ink may be known generally from the directions for its 
use, which state that articles marked with it must be laid in the sun or 
pressed with a warm iron before they are washed. This is to bring about 
the precipitation of metallic silver, which gives the black or brown color 
to the marks. Javelle water may be used to remove stains from silver 
nitrate inks (p. 285). Apply this repeatedly until the color of the spot 
disappears. Then soak the stained place in ammonia to remove the silver 
chloride formed. 

Aniline black ink may be known also from the directions for its use, 
v.'hich generally state that the articles marked with it must not be ironed 
until after they have been washed. Aniline black inks are remarkably 
fast and it is practically impossible to remove them after they have once 
become dry. The method given above for the removal of silver nitrate 
ink stains is not effective in removing aniline black ink stains; neither 
are satisfactory results obtained by trying most of the methods used for 
ordinary writing ink stains. 

Ink, black (printing). 

One of the following agents should be used for removing printing-ink 
stains : 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Remove fresh stains by 
applying an abundance of soap and rubbing thoroughly. 

2. Lard, followed by soap and water, as in No. 1. Rub the stained place 
with lard, and work it well into the fibers to loosen the stain. 

Ink {writing). 

For an ink spot of unknown composition, it is necessary to try various 
agents, beginning always with the simplest and that least likely to injure 
the fabric. One of the following agents may be utilized: 

1. Absorbents: Cornmeal, salt, French chalk, fuller's earth, magnesia, 
talcum powder, and the like. The application of such substances serves 
to remove any ink not absorbed by the fibers and keeps the ink from 
spreading. For a large ink spot, apply one of these substances before trying 
other agents. Work the absorbent around with some blunt instrument 
and renew it when it becomes soiled. When dry absorbent fails to take 
up more ink, make it into a paste with water and continue the application. 



2% .1 i>i.i.\r.iA oi' noMi: MAKixa 

2. S();i|) ami wadT as in onliiiaiy lauiKlcrinn. Tliis is salisfaclnry f<»r 
some ty|M's of school inks, wliidi can In- washed from falirics; for carl)oii 
inks, which arc unalTcctcd liy chcinicals and lan Im- removed only mechan- 
ically; and sometimes for the fresh slains of other inks. 

'A. Milk. Soak tin- stains for a day or two, if n<'ce.ssary, in milk, channinK 
the milk as often as it hecomes di.scolored. This is efTective for .sotiu' stains. 

The foret^oiiiK methods may Iw used safely on all wjushuhlc fabrics. 
If they fail to remove the spot, apply one of the chemicals mentioned 
below: 

4. Oxalic acid, saturated .solution. Soak the stain for a few seconds, 
then rin.se in clear water, and finally in water to which a few droi)s of 
ammonia have been added. 

5. Potassium permanf!;anate. This is satisfactory for .stains upon many 
delicate fabrics as well a.s on ordinary materials. 

G. Javclle water. 

7. Commercial ink-removers generally are .satisfactory if the directions 
furnished with them are followed and the excess of the substance is re- 
moved by thorough rinsing in clean water. 

8. Lemon juice. Keep the stain moistened and exposed to the sun. 
For ink on carjjet, first apply absorbents, as in No. 1 ; follow by repeated 

applications of oxalic acid, as in No. 2, or potassium i)ermanganate, as in 
No. 5, or by rul)bing with the cut .surface of a lemon, squeezing on the 
juice and rinsing between applications with a clean, wet cloth until no 
more ink can be removed. Rub the spot then with a clean, dry cloth. 
After the carpet is dry, brush up the nap with a stiff brush or a 
cloth. 

Iodine. 

One of the following agents may be used in removing iodine stains from 
unstarched materials: 

1. Water. Wash th(» stain in an abundance of water or soak it for a 
number of hours in cold water. The.se stains can be removed also by 
wetting with wat(>r and drying in a warm place, such as over a radiator, 
repeating this if necessary. 

2. Ammonia. Sponge the stain with dilute ammonia. 

3. Alcohol. Sponge the stain. This agent frequently can be ased on 
materials which water would injure. 

4. Starch, prejjared as for laundry jiurposes; for washable materials. 
Immerse the stained place in the starch and boil; it first turns blue and 
then disappears. 

.5. Flour, us(>d in the .same manner as starch. 

For removing iodine stains from starched materials one of the following 
agents may l)e employed: 

1. Ammonia. Soak the .stains in dilute ammonia until tliey dis- 
appear. 

2. Water. Roil the stained material for .') or 10 niinules. 



STAIN REMOVAL 297 

Iron-rust. 

For iron-rust stains on white washable materials one of the agents given 
below should be used. In the case of colored materials, the effect of the 
agent should be tried first on a sample or in an inconspicuous place. 

1. Hydrochloric acid, made by diluting the strong acid with an equal 
volume of water. Spread the stained place over a bowl of hot water and 
apply the acid drop by drop until the stain turns bright yellow; then im- 
merse at once in hot water and rinse thoroughly. Repeat the treatment, 
if necessary. Add a little ammonia or borax to the last rinsing water to 
neutralize any acid which may remain in the goods. 

2. Oxalic acid, in saturated solution, used in the same way as hydrochloric 
acid in No. 1. Or apply the crystals directly to the stain and moisten. 

3. Cream of tartar. Boil the stained place in a solution of 4 teaspoon- 
fuls to 1 pint of water, until the stain disappears. This agent, owing to 
its cost, is practicable only for stains upon small articles which can be 
immersed and boiled in a cup or two of solution, though it may be used 
in the case of larger articles by holding them above the solution in such a 
way that only the stained portion is immersed. 

4. Lemon juice. Spread the stained place over a vessel of actively 
boiling water, and then squeeze lemon juice on the stain. After a few 
minutes rinse the stain and repeat the process. This method is rather 
slow but does not injure delicate white cotton or linen fabrics. 

5. Lemon juice and salt. Sprinkle the stain with salt, moisten with lemon 
juice, and place in the sun, adding more lemon juice if necessary. 

6. Acid fruits or vegetables. Those mentioned below are satisfactory 
and have the advantage of being found in the home garden or easily pur- 
chased. Others cannot be used because their juices are so highly colored 
as to leave stains themselves on the fabric. The use of lemon juice has 
been described above. 

(a) Rhubarb stalks. One stalk, cut up and l:)oiled in one cup of water, 
gives a solution strong enough to dissolve iron-rust. If the stalks have 
highly colored skins peel them before using. Boil the stain in the solution 
for 15 minutes or longer, if necessary. 

(b) Begonia. Place several leaves, together with the stems, in a saucepan 
with only enough water to keep them from burning. Boil the stain in the 
infusion until it disappears. 

(c) Pineapple. Cut up a round slice, about one-half inch in thickness, 
and boil with enough water to keep it from burning. Boil the stains for 
five minutes or until they disappear. 

{(i) Grapefruit. Use the pulp and juice from one-fourth of a fresh 
grapefruit in the same way as the pineapple. 

Lead foil. 

One of the following agents may be employed for this purpose: 
1. Soap and water, for washable materials. Use the soap freely and 
rub the stain thoroughly. Sponge woolen materials. 



2US A M.WIM. or no Ml' M \l\l.\(; 

■J. ( 'lilorufdriii or ntluT cli'aii ornjiiiic w»lv<iit. Imiiiktsc tin- K(:iii)f<l 
phicc ill :i small vessel of the solvent iintl hriisli gently with a. Knjiill wift 
Wnish or nili with a cloth. 

Lead iKitril. 

Tlie marks from lead pencils contain gfaphile, which is insohiblc. The 
methods of removiiij^ pencil marks from textiles are the sjinic as f<ir re- 
moving lead foil marks. A soft eraser sometimes can l>e use<l successfully 
in »fTacin|L!; the mark.s, especially upiiU stilT or stanched materials. 

lAittlicr. 

The following agents are .satisfactory in some ca.ses: 

1. Soap and water, a.s in ordinary laundering. U.se an abuaduncc of 
soap, with thorough rul)I)ing. 

2. Potassium permanganate (p. 28G). 

Lime (slacked). 

To remove lime stains, allow the spots to dry, ljru.sh carefully, and treat 
in the same way as alkali stains (p. 288). 

Meat juice or gravy stains. 

Stains from meat juice arc similar to Mood .stains (page 288). Hot 
water sets the stains and should not be used until the protein material 
has been removc^l l)y cold water. Grease spots, which sometimes remain 
after the remainder of the stain is removed, especially in the ca.se of stains 
from cooked meat, can be removed by the methods vised for grca.sc (p. 292). 
In the case of gravies thickened with flour, it sometimes is necessary to 
follow this treatment by one of the treatments recommended for "white 
sauce" (p. 306). 

Medicines. 

If the nature of the medicine is known, the remover can be cho.spn 
accordingly. If the nature of the medicine stain is not known, it is neces- 
sary to try various ag(>nts imtil one is found wiiich serves the purpose. 

Each of the following agents is satisfactory in removing some medicine 
stains: 

1. Boiling water, ]ioured on tlie stain from a considerable height, as for 
fruit stains (]). 291). 

2. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering. 

3. Acids, such as hydrochloric, or oxalic. Dilute solutions of these acids 
sometimes are useful for stains containing metallic salts. 

4. Alcohol. Spong(> the stain with alcohol or soak it in alcohol. 

5. Javelle water. This agent sometimes will bleach a stain that resists 
treatment by other means. 

.^[il<l<lr. 

One of the following agents may be used for the removal of mildew stains: 
1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering. \'erv fre.sh .stains can 
be washed out. Drying in the sun helps to bleach the sjiots. 



STAIN REMOVAL 299 

2. Sour milk. Soak tlio stains overnight in sour milk and then place in 
the sun without rinsing. Repeat the treatment sev(>ral times if necessary. 
Light stains can be rcunoved in this way. 

3. Lemon juice. Moisten the stains with lemon juice and allow them 
to remain in the sun. This, is effective in removing slight stains. 

4. Javelle water. Use this agent for bleaching old stains. 

5. Potassium permanganate. Use this agent upon old and persistent 
stains. 

Milk and cream. 

One of the following agents should be used in removing spots from milk 
and cream: 

1. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by hot water and soap (ordinary 
laundering), for stains on washable materials. For spots on other fabrics, 
sponge with soapy water and then with clean water. 

2. Cold or lukewarm water, followed by chloroform, gasoline, or some 
other grease solvent. For fabrics which ordinary laundering would injure, 
first sponge cafefully with water, allow to dry, and then sponge with a 
grease solvent. 

Mucus. 

To remove mucus stains, soak in ammonia water or in salt and water, 
then wash with soap and cold water. 

Mud. 

Allow mud stains to dry and brush carefully before any other treatment 
is used. Sometimes no other treatment is necessary. 
The following agents are satisfactory: 

1. Soap and water, as in ordinary laundering, for washable materials. 

2. Alcohol. Sponge the stains with alcohol. 

3. Water. Sponge the stains. 

4. Cut raw potato. For black silks of firm weave, after brushing, rub 
the spot with the potato. This leaves a thin film of starch on the surface 
of the cloth, which can be brushed off when dry. This treatment is too 
harsh for any but rather smooth, firm goods and leaves a spot on all but 
black materials. 

Paints and varnishes. 

Before using any agent upon paint or varnish stains, it is best to scrape 
off as much of the stain as possible from the surface of the material. 

One of the following agents may be used for the removal of paint and 
varnish stains, not including "alcohol stain," which is discussed separately: 

1. Soap and water. Fresh stains, especially on washable materials, are 
removed easily by carefully washing with plenty of soap. Older stains 
sometimes can be removed in this way if they are first softened by rubbing 
oil, lard, or butter into them thoroughly. 

2. Turpentine. Sponge the stains with pure turpentine, or wash the 



30() .1 .\/.i.\r.i/. or IK I. mi: MAKixr; 

wholo luiiclc ill it, if the s|M.ts an- lar^r or sruttcnd, and llnii rinse it 
M'vcral liiiu's in fn"<li (plant ilics nf I lie solvent. 

;{. 'I'inpentine and ammonia. Stains wliicli an- not fresh an<l yi't havi* 
not enlin'ly liardeiied can l)e softeiii'd l»y mojsteninji them witli ammonia 
and sprinkling them with a little turpentine. Koll the article up for 15 
«)r 20 minutes, or soak it for .several InMirs, if ne<;essary, and then wash it 
with warm water and .soap. 

4. Oil solvents, su<'h as chloroform, api)lied in the same way as the tur- 
ju'iitine, are sati.sfactory (Xo. 2). Cla.soline, kerosene, and alcohol arc 
le.-;s satisfactory. 

'). Sodium carbonate or wa.shinn-soda ('.i tahlespooas to each gallon of 
water). Hoil the stains in this solution. The method i.s successful for 
such materials as will stand the treatment. 

None of these metliods will remove extremely old stains. 

In paint causing an alcohol stain, a pigment is suspended in alcohol 
with small amoimts of shelhur and other resinous material. The methods 
of removing it from fabrics dilTer somewhat from tho.se for .ordinary paint 
stains. Treatment with turpentine alone or with other oil .solvents, which 
usually will remove ordinary i)aint .stains, is inclTcctive. One of the f(jl- 
lowing agents should be employed: 

1. Soap and water for very fresh stains on washable materials. 

2. .\lcohol. If the stains are fresh, sponge them freely with alcohol. 

3. Turpentine* and ammonia for old stains. 

4. Strong ammonia for old stains. Soak the stain for half an hour in 
strong ammonia and then wash. 

Paints, water color. 

The following agent will be found satisfactory for removing stains made 
by water color jiaints on materials not injured bj' water: 

1. Soap and water. Wash the material in lukewarm or cold water with 
soa]), the stained portions being rul)bed if nece.s.sary. Both fresh and old 
stains can be removed in this way. This method is satisfactory in the case 
of washable silks and woolens, as well as cotton or linen materials. 

The following ag(>nts are fairly successful in removing these stains from 
materials like finished silks, which would be injured by washing. .-Vlthough 
it is almost imi)ossil)le to remove all traces of the stains, the appearance 
of the spots may be improved greatly. 

2. Gasoline. Dip the stained jK)rtion in gasoline and rub vigorously. 

3. Glycerin and water. Sponge the stain with glycerin until the water 
color is removed and then with lukewarm water to remove the glycerin. In 
case a water ring is left, treat tliis as described under "water spots" 
(page 306). 

Paraffin or paraffin wax. 

For removing the part of the stain which has penetrated the fiber, 
use one of the following agents: 



STAIN REMOVAL 301 

1. Blotting paper or an absorbent powder and a warm iron (No. 2 
under " grease "). 

2. Grease solvents. If a trace of the stain remains after treatment, 
as ia No. 1, sponge the stain carefully with a grease solvent (see No. 3 
under " grease "). 

For colored paraffin see " candle wax (colored)," page 290. 

Perspiration. 

While the perspiration from most of the body is acid, that from the 
armpits is alkaline. For treating colors changed by this, see " alkali," 
page 288. The yellow stains sometimes caused upon white material 
by perspiration are removed by the following agents : 

1. Soap and water. Exposure to the sun helps to bleach the stained 
material. 

2. Javelle water. 

3. Potassium permanganate. 
Pitch. 

See "resinous substances," below. 

Resins and resinous substances. 

One of the following solvents may be used: Turpentine, chloroform, 
alcohol (grain or wood), ether, kerosene, gasoline, and water for water- 
soluble gums, such as gum arable. In each case sponge the stain or im- 
merse it in the solvent and rub. 

Salad-dressing. 

Salad-dressings usually contain oil, vinegar (or lemon juice), and condi- 
ments, and may contain egg or cream also. If egg or cream is present, hot 
water must not be used. For discoloration due to the acid of the vinegar 
or lemon juice, treat in the same way as acid stains (p. 287). 

One of the following agents should be used for salad-dressing stains: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials. Sponge 
delicate materials with lukewarm water, using soap if the material is not 
harmed by it. 

2. Grease solvents. 
Scorch. 

Scorch upon cotton and linen sometimes can be removed, if the fibers 
are not actually burned. Wool and silk are disintegrated at a lower tem- 
perature than cotton and linen and cannot be restored to their original 
condition after being scorched. 

For removing slight scorch stains from cotton and linen, use one of the 
following agents: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). This is sufficient to remove 
very slight stains. 

2. Water and sunlight. Wet the spot with water, or soap and water, 
and expose to the sun for a day, or longer, if necessary. The scorch dis- 
appears much more slowly if the material is not moistened before exposure. 



MO'J .1 y.wiM. (>!■' iioMi: \i.\i\i\'(; 

;i. Hifail cnist. \crv slinht scorfli on tin- .siirl.ici' of inntcrials whicli 
arc not especially delicate soiiietiiiie.s can l)e ruhhed away with u bread 
crust . 

Shoc-ftrcasi n gs . 

One of the foilowinn ajicnts should he used in removinK stains from tho 
hlack shoe j)olishes: 

1. Soap and water for the pastes. If the stains are fresh, sponge or wa«h 
them thoroujjhly with an abundance of soap (p. 2K4). 

2. Turpentine only f<jr the pastes containiiif:; tur|)entine — this may l)o 
delected by the odor. Inuiier.se the stained i)Iaces and rub neritly in tur- 
pentine. 

'.i. Potassium permanganate or javelle water for stains from the black 
litiuid dressing. First remove as much of the stain as po.ssible by sponging 
or washing as in No. 1 . 

The common tan leather dressings coasist either of a liquid cleaning 
solution or a box of polishing wax, or both. The cleaning solution some- 
times contains a considerable amount of free oxalic acid, which may weaken 
a fabric seriously if allowed to remain long in contact with it. Sometimes 
also water-soluble dyes arc present and these make a much more per- 
sistent stain on wool than on c-otton. Use one of the following agents: 

1. Soap and water, for stains upon cotton and linen (p. 284). 

2. Alcohol. The stains on wool are removed more successfully by spong- 
ing (p. 284) with alcohol, than with soap and water. 

The stains produced by the jiolishing waxes usually may be removed bj' 
one of the wax .solvents (page 300). 

For removing spots caused by white shoe pastes or lifjuids, use the 
following agent : 

Water. First sponge the spot (p. 284), and when drj-, brush thoroughly 
or rul) in the direction of the weave with a piece of the same material. 

Siluer nilrate. 

See "ink (marking)," page 295. 

Soap. 

When a material has not been rinsed sufficiently and is ironed with soap 
still present in the; fiber, stains sometimes appear which resemble iron-rust 
stains, but usually are lighter yellow in color. Use the following for such 
stains : 

Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Bleaching in the sun helps to 
remove stains which are espe<!ially iicrsistent. 

Sool. 

Soot spots, being comjxjsed of Hue particles of carbon, are insoluble 
and must be removed from a fabric mechanically, l^^r one of the following 
agents: 

1. Soaj) and water (ortlinary laundering). I'"irst i>rusli the stain, then 
l)lace on tlie stain aiworbcut powders, such as fuller's earth, I'Vcnch chalk. 



STAIN REMOVAL 303 

cornstarch, cornmeal, or salt, work them around until they become soiled, 
and brush them away. Then wash or sponge the stain. 

2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvents, for materials injured 
by washing. First brush the stain lightly or treat it with absorbent 
powder, as in No. 1, then immcrso it in the solvent and 'rub gently, or 
brush with a small, soft brush. For the treatment of rings caused by 
organic solvents, see "grease," page 292. 

Soup. 

Stains from soup should be treated in the same way as those from white 
sauces (page 306). 

Stni>e-polish. 

The following agents are fairly satisfactory: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Rub the soap thoroughly 
on the stain. 

2. Chloroform, gasoline, or other organic solvent, for materials injured 
by washing. Immerse the stain in the solvent and while immersed rub 
it gently or brush it with a small soft brush. 

Sugar sirups. 

One of the following agents should be used in removing sugar sirup 
stains: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering), for washable materials. 

2. Sponging with clear water is satisfactory for other materials. 

Tar, road oil, creosote oil, asphalt, asphalt paint, and the like. 

The stains from these substances are grouped together because they 
are somewhat similar in their chemical composition. In general, the same 
solvents are used for all. The stains are rather difficult to remove from 
textiles, especially from cotton, and after the oily or tarry part of the 
spot has been removed, dark-colored organic or mineral impurities are 
likely to remain. 

One of the following agents may be used : 

1. Turpentine. Sponge the stains or immerse them in turpentine, and 
rub. The latter treatment is best if the fabric is not too delicate. For 
stains on carpet, scrub with a cloth soaked in turpentine, changing to a 
fresh cloth as soon as it becomes discolored, and continuing as long as 
any color comes off. 

2. Turpentine, as in No. 1, followed by thorough washing in soap and 
hot water (p. 284). 

3. Chloroform, applied in the same way as turpentine in No. 1 and No. 2. 

4. Lard. Rub thoroughly into the stain, then wash in hot water and 
soap. Repeat the treatment if necessary. 

Tea. 

One of the following agents should be employed in removing tea stains: 

1. Borax, Ijoiling water. If stains are on cotton or linen and not more 



:;()l A MAMM. or ikimi: m\ki.\(; 

llian a few days old, snak llicrn in a Ixirax sdIiiIkxi (32 '"^ 1 If.'UJpoon tn 
1 cup of water) and then rinse in Itoilinn water. 

■_'. A stronn soap solution, containing a lialf-inch eul)0 of soap to each 
(ii|i of water, lioil the staineii material in this .sohition. Stains 2 or '.i 
weeks old are removed succe.s.sfully if they are on small articles of white 
wa.sh material which can he boiled in a small quantity of li(juid. 

3. Potiussium i)ermanK:uiate, for stains which resist other reaKont.s. 

4. Javelle water for persistent stains. This is slightly less satisfactory 
than the pota.ssium permanganate. 

5. Lemon juice and sunlight. Keep the stains moist witli lemon juice 
and exjjosc them to the sun for a ilay (jr two. They will 1)(; i)ractically 
removetl. 

Tobacco. 

One of the following agents may he utilized in removing tohncco-juice 
stains: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Sponge materials which 
cannot he washed. If a .stain on washable materials cannot l)e completely 
removed liy washing, bleach it in the sun. Moistening it with lemon juice 
makes it disapp(uir more quickly. 

2. Wood or grain alcohol. Traces of color remaining upon wool fabrics 
after sponging with water can be removed sometimes by sponging with 
alcohol. 

3. Potassium i)ermaiigaiiate, for stains whicli washing will not remove 
(p. 286). 

4. Javelle water, for stains which washing will not remove. 

Tomato vine. 

One of the following agents should he used in removing such stains: 

1. Lemon juice and sunlight. First w;ish the stains carefully, then 
moisten them with lemon juice and e.\j)ose them to the sun for several 
days if necessary. This is satisfactory for stains on white washable ma- 
terials. 

2. Alcohol (wood or grain). Sponge the stains with alcohol, which 
removes the green part of the stain. Stains on wool or silk are practically 
removed by this treatment. 

3. Pota.ssium permanganate. First wash the stains with soap and 
water or sponge with alcohol. 

4. Javelle water. First wash the stains with soap antl water or siJongc 
with alcohol. 

Tunncric. 

Turmeric is a constituent of many pickles and of curry powder, to which 
it is added for its yellow color and aromatic flavor. To remove such stain.s, 
one of the following agents may be used: 

1. Dilute ammonia. Remove fresh stains on white materials by soaking 
in this reagent. 



STAIN REMOVAL 305 

2. Alcohol (grain or wood). Apply in the same way as No. 1. These 
agents are very satisfaetory on old stains. 

3. Javelle water. 

4. Potassium permanganate. 

Varnish. 

See "paint and varnish," page 299. 

Vaseline. 

One of the following reagents may be employed in removing vaseline 
stains : 

1. Turpentine. Sponge fresh stains with this agent. Old stains, even 
those which have been washed and ironed, usually can be removed by 
soaking in turpentine, if care is taken to immerse them completely. 

2. Agents used in Nos. 2, 3, and 4, under "grease," page 292, for fresh 
stains. Ordinary washing (No. 1, under "grease,") is not usually sufficient 
to remove the stains. 

Verdigris. 

The blue-green tarnish on copper, brass, and bronze, consisting of basic 
copper carbonate, is known commonly as verdigris. In removing it from 
textiles use the following agents: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). Stains that are merely on 
the surface of the material can sometimes be removed in this way. 

2. Dilute acids, such as vinegar, or lemon juice. Apply one of these to 
the stain and rinse off as soon as it has dissolved the verdigris. 

Vinegar. 

See "acid," page 287. 

Walnut, black. 

Fresh stains, which are still moist, usually can be removed, provided 
the material is strong enough to stand the treatment, but old stains or 
stains on delicate fabrics in many cases cannot be removed by any of the 
reagents tried. 

The following reagents are satisfactory in some cases: 

1. Concentrated soap solution, prepared by shaving about 1 cubic inch 
of laundry soap into 1 pint of hot water and stirring until dissolved. Boil 
the stain in this solution. This treatment is successful only with fresh 
stains upon cotton or hnen. In the case of week-old stains, a gray color 
persists. 

2. Soap solution as in No. 1, followed by bleaching with Javelle water. 
This treatment is effective in removing the gray stains mentioned in No. 1, 
in many instances. 

3. Javelle water, diluted with an equal volume of hot water. Soak 
the stained place for 114 hours in this solution, then rinse thoroughly, 
treat with dilute oxalic acid, and rinse again. This is effective in removing 
a week-old stain and the fibers of the material are not seriously injured. 



300 A MAsr.M. or iiomemakisc; 

Sojikinn the stain in .Iiivrllr water n|" full stniiutli, liowfvcr, ruts tlic 
material. 

Wnhr f^/Hils. 

Sonic silks and wools an- s|)ottf(l \>y water, 'i'liis proliaiily dissolves 
some r)f the linishinn or weinlitinn sul)stances present and on evuponitinn 
these substances arc de|)((sited irregularly or in rin^s. A sati.sfactory 
inetliod for rcinovinji such spots is to dampen tlic entire material evenly 
and press it wliile still damp. Either sponge the material carefully with 
clean water or shake it in the steam from a briskly hoilin^ teakettle until 
it is thoroughly damp, then jire.ss it. 

While sduces, crcnvi soups, gruel, and the like. 

These usually consist cliioHy of milk and liuttor, thickened with flour. 
Flavorinfj; materials and vcKf'tables, which may he addetl, d<^ not a.s a rule 
afTcct the character of the stain. The presence of the starch and gluten 
of the flour make.s it particularly hard to remove such stains from materials 
that cannot be washed. Use one of tlie following agent-s for treating the.se 
stains: 

1. Soap and water (ordinary laundering). 

2. Hot water. Sponge the stains. Follow this by a grease solvent 
when necessary. 

Whitewash. 

Whitewash stains should be treated in the same way as alkali stains 
(page 288). 

Wine. 

See "fruit and berries (fresh)," page 291. When the stain is first made 
sprinkle salt on it to keep it from spreading. 



PART III 
CLOTHING 

CHAPTER XIV 

TEXTILES * 

By Beulah Blackmore 

The word textile as used in this chapter is applied to the 
common fibers and the woven goods produced from them. Since 
the making of fabrics has been taken out of the home, the house- 
wife's knowledge of materials has become very limited, while 
the industry has been steadily advancing. In fact, the manu- 
facturer can so disguise, substitute, and adulterate a textile 
that even the expert may be deceived by the appearance. No 
objection should be raised to any fiber that is suited to its pur- 
pose ; the point for contention is that the buyer frequently pays 
for one kind of material and receives another. Textiles cannot 
be standardized until the consumer is ready to train himself 
through study, experience, and observation, to recognize good 
materials and to demand a fair return for his money. 

COTTON 

Cotton has short, flat fibers with a spiral twist, character- 
istics that give elasticity and the possibility of being spun into 

* In this discussion are frequent quotations, as indicated, from Some 
Points in Choosing Textiles, by Charlotte M. Gibbs (Baker), Univ. of 111., 
Bull. 15. Acknowledgment is also made for valuable suggestions from 
The Study of Textiles, by Nellie Crooks in the Proceedings of the Lake 
Placid Conference on Home Economics, 190S, and from Hints on Choosing 
Textiles, by Bertha E. Titsworth, Bull. 45, in the Cornell Reading-Course 
for the Farm Home. 

307 



30S 



.1 M.Wl'AL OF lln.MI-: MAKIXC 




line I lucid (I-'i^- •'»7). 'I'lic (|u;ilily of cotton materials (iepemls 
on the sticiifidi of the lilxTs, the fiiiciicss or coarsoncss of the 
material, the weave, the color and desij^n, and the adultera- 
tions.* 

AduHcrntion. 

Cotton, hi'ins the cheapest fiber, is not adulterated with 
any other fiber when the material is to be sold as cotton cloth, 

but it can be made to appear heavier 
by the addition of mixtures called siz- 
ing. Starches, gums, de.xtrin, glue, 
china clay, as well as other ingretlient.s 
in var3'ing proportions, constitute this 
sizing which may atkl a large per- 
centage to the weight of the cloth. 
The spaces between the threads are 
filled U{). and a good finish is given to 
thecloth,althoughtiie wearing cjuality 
Fig. 57.— Cotton fibers, show- is not improved. If present in large 
iwist. ' ^ ' characteristic ^^..^tities, the cloth is greatly reduced 
in weight and firmness after the first 
washing. Adulterations of this kind can l)e detected by the feel- 
ing, a large fiuantity imparting a hai-shness to the material.* 

If material suspected of being heavily weightetl or sized is 
rubbed vigorously ])etween the hands, the white chalky specks 
of sizing may be seen on the hands. If the material is held up 
and torn (luickly, a small cloud of starch or sizing may be seen. 
If very heavily starched material is touched b}' the tongue, 
the starch may be tasted or a sticky spot left on the material. 
In very thin fabrics the sizing may often be detected by hold- 
ing the cloth up to the light, when the starch shows between 
the threads. Washing or thoroughly boiling a sample in soda 
water will show the amount of sizing present. 

Another method of adullerating cotton is shown in certain 
kinds of dotted swiss. A good swiss has thread dots woven or 
embroidered in the cloth. These dots are generally woven 

*Univ. of III.. Hull. 15. 



TEXTILES 309 

with continuous threads on the back of the cloth; and in a later 
process of finishing, the threads between the dots on the wrong 
side of the material are sheared off, leaving only the threads 
which catch through to make the dots on the right side. Oc- 
casionally one finds a piece of swiss selling at the regular price, 
on which the dots instead of being woven as just described 
are merely dots of very stiff paste. In washing, these dots dis- 
appear; or if they do not disappear entirely, they are made 
brown from the heat of the iron. 

Occasionally cotton cloth which has been on the market for 
some time is weakened by the action of the chemicals used in 
bleaching, dyeing, or in the sizing. This may be easily detected 
by tearing the cloth.* 

Mercerization. 

Mercerized cotton is cloth produced by the action of a strong 
alkali on cotton fiber rinsed under tension. The process of 
mercerization is generally carried on while the fiber is still in 
the yarn. Mercerized cotton is actually stronger than cotton 
which has not been so treated. The characteristic twist of the 
cotton fiber is taken out, and the cell-wall is thickened by con- 
traction. The result is a stronger fiber, a long slender cylinder 
which reflects the light, rather than a flat' twisted, ribbon-like 
filament. The cellulose of the fiber is changed into another 
kind of chemical substance which has a much greater affinity 
for dye substances; therefore, beautiful colorings may be found 
in mercerized cotton materials. 

The cost of producing a high grade of mercerized cotton, it 
has been stated, is about three times that of unmercerized cot- 
ton; consequently if a piece of this material is offered at a very 
low price, it is well to test it for true mercerization before buy- 
ing. This may be done by thoroughly washing a sample or ex- 
posing it to friction and the weather. The gloss of proi;)erly 
mercerized material will not disappear on hard wear or launder- 
ing. 

An imitation of mercerized cotton may be made by the action 

* Opus cit. 



;{l(l A MAMM. or HOME MAKISC 

of vciv licMvy ;iM(| very liol (\\liiKlcis on oidiii.iry cofton cloth. 
This iiiiil.-ilioii will not uilhstaiiij Irictioii or laiiiKJcriiiK. 

Slnii(hirtl Ciitldii iiuiU rials * 

Slaiidard cotton materials such as muslins, orfiiatuiics, jxt- 
calcs, calicoes, aiul sheet ings difTer ouh' in the \vei>i;ht of the 
mateiial, fineness of tlu'cad, hanhiess of twist, and metiiod of 
finish. Ciinf^hams have tlie thread dyed hefoic weaving and 
fancy weaves are frecjuently used. Duck, denim, and some 
otlier heavy materials have very hard twisted threads and are 
frequently woven with a twill. Silkolene is a trade name for a 
fine cotton cloth with a silky finish {j;iven after the cloth is 
woven. Mercerized cottons make lustrous materials, such as 
poplin, imitation pongee, and numerous attractive house-fur- 
nishing materials. India linon is entirely cotton, as are outing 
flannel and canton flannel. ]\Iany tussahs, voiles, and economy 
linens and other materials with rather deceptive names are cot- 
ton materials mad(^ to imitate silk, wool, or linen. 

Uses of cotton materials. 

Cotton fiber is 'covered ])y cotton wax, which serves as a pro- 
tective coat and renders cotton material very slow in absorb- 
ing water. For this reason, cotton dish-towels are imsatis- 
factory. If a cloth to absorl) moisture is desired, it must be 
made of a fiber that is not water-repellent. In aljsorbent cotton 
the wax has been removed. 

Cotton is Hght in weight and inexpensive and affords a most 
desirable fabric for general wear. It is especially desirable fc)r 
undergarments and house dresses, since it is not impaired by 
frequent laundering. Starch is absorbed by the cotton fil^eis 
as readily in the process of laundering as at the time of manu- 
facture. It is, therefore, possible to keep the garments as fresh 
as when new. Cotton fabrics shrink for the first few times that 
they are laundered. The percentage of shrinkage varies with 
the type of fiber and the method of manufacture of the material. 
A loosely woven material will often shrink more than a closely 
woven piece. 

* Opu.-< rit. 



TEXTILES 311 

Some of the more common cotton materials are as follows: 

Shediny should have rouiul firm threads closely jjac-ked tof^ether with 
the warp and filling; threads ecjually balanced. Little sizinji; should be 
used. Unbleached sheeting will give better wear than the bleached, be- 
cause fewer chemicals are used in finishing it. It will become white in 
time. It is used for bed coverings. 

Long cloth is a soft, firm fabric with a close weave made of a fine grade 
of cotton yarn of medium twist. The material is dull in finish and has a 
rather fuzzy surface, making it imdesirable for outer garments. It is 
used for undergarments and aprons. 

Cambric is a plain weave with a smooth surface on one side. There 
are many grades of this material. Because of its smooth surface it sheds 
the dust. It is a most desirable material for undergarments, aprons, waists, 
and baby clothing. 

Nainsook is a very soft, light cotton fabric with one surface slightly 
calendered, or pressed with heavy hot cylinders to give a gloss. It may be 
distinguished from cambric, long cloth, or batiste, because its construction 
is not so firm nor its finish so smooth. It is used for infants' clothes, lingerie, 
and undergarments. 

Batiste is a sheer, lustrous cloth in white and dainty colors. There is 
often a mercerized thread introduced in the better grades. It is used for 
waists, dresses, and baby clothes. 

Canton flannel is a heavy cloth with twilled surface on one side and a 
soft nap on the other. It is used for children's underwear becau.se of warmth 
and durability, and for linings in order to add warmth to other garments. 

Flannelette is a soft cloth with a nap on both sides of the weave and with 
figures printed on plain backgrounds. It is low in cost and launders easily. 
It is used for nightgowns, underwear, and children's clothing. Because 
flannelette is .so popular for children's garments and because it is so in- 
flammable, manufacturers have been working for a long time to find a 
process wherel)y they may render this material permanently fire-proof 
without injuring the feel or durability of the cloth or causing it to appear 
damp or making it dusty. The process must not affect the colors or the 
design that are woven into the cloth or dyed or printed upon it. After 
many investigations, this permanent fire-proofing has been accomplished. 

Calico is a cotton cloth with a design printed on one side. Calicoes 
may be seen in almost any color. The colors are generally not fast and 
will often run or fade when subjected to water. This material is usually 
heavily sized. It is used for inexpensive dresses, aprons, and wrappers 
because of its low cost, its durability, and the ease with which it is laundered. 
Percale is much like calico, but much superior in quality. 

Gingham has a plain weave with warp and w^oof of variously colored 
threads that form plaids, checks, and stripes. It is used for dresses, aprons, 
and shirts. 



312 .1 MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC 

('hdmhrdii is :i staph' falnicof many yi-ars' shiiidin;:. It is a linlil-wcinlit 
silicic cIdIIi that is always wovrn with a plain weave anil always h.-is ji 
white selvage. Its elTect is that of a doth woven with one color in (he 
wiirp and a while lillinn. It is used for dresses, men's shirts, and aprons. 

GnUiUn is a heavy firm sutecn weave with d(«ign printed on one side. 
It is used for ehildren's clothe.s, outing .suits, and the like, when a cloth of 
stronntli and durability is desired. 

Cutldti (lavutslc has very much the .same api)earanee as linen damask 
before it is washed. This excellent finish is lirou^ht about l>oth by mer- 
cerization and cloth finish. However, one who buys cotton damask di"- 
feats his own purpose in K<"ttinK a material that will take a Kood poli.sh 
and retain its smoothness, from the very fact that the cotton fiber is .short 
and the ends of the fibers cannot be held in jjlace as can the fewer ends of 
the linen fibers. Therefore, after a few washings the cotton damask hxs 
a fuzzy surface, it refuses to take or hold a polish, and it is very limp and 
easily soiled. Cotton damask is used for tablecloths and doilies. 

Velveteen is a material woven in imitation of velvet, but it is made 
wholly of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits. 
Other cotton materials are: 

For house)iolil purposes 
Awning 
Chintz 
Crash 
Cretonne 
Denim 
Diaper 
Mummy 
Rep 
Scrim 



LINEN 

Liiicn was formerly the most important vegetable fiber, 
and was commonly used for all household purposes. Of late 
years it has been largely replaced by cotton, with which it may 
be compared, although there are still uses for which linen is 
demanded, and others for which linen is preferred to cotton. 

The linen fiber is long, smooth, and quite lustrous (Fig. 58) 
when spim into a thread. It is very strong and there are not so 
many fuzzy ends as are found in cotton. Cloth made from it is 
not only lustrous and rich-looking, but because of its smooth- 



For dret 


>.SC.S' 


All)atross 


Lawn 


Bedford cord 


Linon 


Buckram 


Mull 


Canvas 


Muslin 


Cheese-cloth 


Organdie 


Crdix- 


Percale 


Crinoline 


Percaline 


Dimity 


Piqu6 


Drill 


Poplin 


Duck 


Sateen 


Gauze 


Silesia 


Khaki 


Tarlatan 



TEXTILES 



313 



ness stays clean longer than cotton. The snowy whiteness 
of linen, obtained with some difficulty in bleaching, is quite per- 
manent, and since the fiber takes dyes with difficulty and parts 
with them quite readily, it also does not retain stains as per- 
sistently as does cotton.* 

Adulteration. 

Linen is much more expensive than cotton, and when linen 
prices are paid, linen should be received. Since the two fibers 
are rather hard to distinguish, espe- 
cially when heavily starched and given 
a good finish, it is easy to deceive the 
buyer. " Linen " collars are frequently 
largely cotton, ''linen" handkerchiefs 
may not have a thread of linen, as is 
apt to be the case with rather inex- 
pensive embroidered handkerchiefs, 
and table ''linen" may be mercerized 
cotton, cotton and linen, or even or- 
dinary cotton. To distinguish linen Fig. 58.— Linen fibers, show 

from cotton, the threads should be ex- 
amined carefully; cotton is made up of 
short fibers which project from the 

surface of the thread, and become fuzzy when the thread is 
rubbed between the fingers; when broken, cotton has a 
tufted end, while the linen fibers break more unevenly and 
leave a more pointed end. The linen thread should be stronger 
than the cotton; it has more luster, and is usually more uneven. 
Some kinds of linen have fl'at threads, but cotton is frequently 
finished in imitation of flat-thread linen.f 

Color. 

Linen is more easily disintegrated than cotton, and therefore 
does not withstand the action of boiling alkali solutions, bleach- 
ing powder, and oxidizing agents. This characteristic together 
with its slow reaction to dyestuff, makes it difficult to obtain 




ing the characteristic 
nodes and longitudinal 
striations. 



Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. 



t Opus oil. 



MM .1 .l/.l.\ / .1/. or IKiMi: MAK/XC 

;i fast color tlinl will take hold of tlic lil)ci-. Natural color and 
white arc, thcrcl'orc, more likely to ^ive coinj)lele fsatisfactioii 
than any applied color in linen fabrics.* 

Sizing. 

Linen always contains a certain amount, of sizing, for the 
yarn would become rouji;h in the weaving if it were not so 
treated. Often sizing is used lo (•oiiccal imperfection, coarse 
weaving, or the use of cotton or meicerized cotton fibers. 

Selection . 

Good linen yarn is round and twisted: if the yarn is loosely 
twisted and flat, the maleiial will not wear so well. 

Linen fiber absorbs moisture readily; it is, therefore, very 
suitable for towelings and for other materials that are used to 
I'emove moisture fi-om sui faces. Huck, an imeven weave giving 
a good surface for the absorption of water, makes good towels, 
and, decorated with designs in damask w'eavc, may be very 
handsome. 

Many linens in plain weaves are available for clothing, or 
embroidery, while the coarse Russian crashes are becoming 
popular for decorative purposes. The texture of linen is such 
that the heavier kinds hang well in folds, lie flat on a table, 
and are very artistic for many j)urposes. The old test for iden- 
tifying linen by moistening the finger and putting it under the 
cloth is not always a sure one, since the moistui'e will not come 
through a heavy linen, or one with much starch in it, and it 
will come through a sheer, tightly twisted cotton. A better 
test is to put a drop of olive oil on the cloth and press it between 
blotting papers. The linen becomes more transparent than the 
cotton. Th6re is a peculiar leathery feeling about good table 
linen, which cotton will not give, and the luster is different, 
although this is difficult to describe.f 

It is more difficult to choose medium-priced linen wisely than 
to choose the finer and n)ore exjjensive grades, because substitu- 
tion for strong fiber and vai'ious finishes may be used to lower 

* Conu'll Hciiiliiig-Coiirst' for the Farm lloinc, Bull. lo. 
t rr.iv. of 111., Bull. 15. 



TEXTILES 315 

the price while they maintain the appearance. Shoppers for 
institutions as well as for the home are often lacking' in ability 
to judge and consequently buy towels and table linen which 
will not give satisfactory wear. Without training, the only 
safe procedure is to keep strictly to reliable firms rather than 
to be attracted by what seem to be better values at lower 
prices elsewhere. Many housekeepers prefer to buy the un- 
bleached tablecloths and bleach them for themselves. There 
is economy in this, because the chemical bleaching used almost 
exclusively for medium grades, weakens the fiber. The quality 
to be avoided is poorly spun, flat, rather thin yarn, heavily 
sized, the cloth loosely woven and light in weight, sized and 
beetled so that it looks substantial and glistening.* 

Characteristics and uses of some common linen fabrics. 

Butcher's linen is a heavy, coarse weave. It is used for skirts, waists, 
and aprons. 

Cambric is a fine, sheer material. It is used for dresses and handkerchiefs 
because of its sheer texture. 

Crash is a coarse material, the yarns being irregular in size and slightly 
flattened. It is used for toweling, skirts, runners, and upholstery. 

Damask is a fine satin weave with figured designs. It is used for table- 
cloths, napkins, and towels. 

Huckaback is an uneven weave with much of the filling showing. It is 
used for toweling because of its rough surface which easily absorbs moisture 
and causes a glow to the skin. 

Handkerchief linen is a firm, even weave but a sheer material. It is used 
for waists, handkerchiefs, and baby dresses. 

WOOL 

In point of quality wool belongs next to cotton, although in 
price there is a long distance between them. A scaly structure 
on the surface of wool (Fig. 59), especially marked in sheep's 
wool, gives it virtues possessed by no other fiber. It is by rea- 
son of these scales that wool mats together, that air is held in the 
spaces of a woolen garment, that it absorbs a great amount of 
moisture without seeming wet — characteristics which all have 

* Medium priced linens for institution and home. Mary Schenck 
Woolman. Journal of Home Economics, 9:10:447-451. 



31G .1 .\/.i.v/M/. (tr iioMi: MAKixc; 

their value in clolliiiin. I'llasl icily, sfrenf;th, and liisler also 
are atliiTnites of wool, and the kink, more or less conspicuous, 
aids in spinning; and also in identifying; the filiec. The finish 
given to the l)e<t grades of woolen cloth makes them stand the 
weather Keller than do other materials. There arc a niunher of 
fibers c'onnnonly classed as wools wiiich vary somewhat from 
sheep's wool. The more iiair-like fibers from dilTerent goats 
and the camel do not possess the felting cjuality of wool, but on 
the other hand aic more lustrous. \'cry attractive upholstery 

fabrics are made of goats' hair. An- 
gora goat hair is manufactured into 
mohair as well as tiie various angora 
knitted fabrics. Camel's hair has a 
iium})er of uses, and the public is more 
or less familiar with alpaca from the 
animal of that name. Wool fiber 
aloMc may be spun a second time. 
Loosely twisted threads, such as those 
Fk;. 59.-^^Wfil.cr, showing ^^ knitted fabrics or worsted goods, 
the rharactpristic scales may be pulled to picccs and the fiber 
and the serrated surface, ^p^j^ again either alone or in com- 
bination with new wool or cotton, the product being known 
as shoddy.* 

As compared with other textile fibers, wool is light in weight 
in proportion to its warmth. Wool absorbs moisture very 
slowly. It retains drops of moisture on the outside fibers, and 
the lustrous surface of these fibers often causes the drops to 
slide olT. Thus it actually sheds moisture. The durability of 
materials made from wool is due to the elastic nature of the 
fiber. Wools absorb tlyestuffs readily and ordinarily retain 
them in their original color during the full life of the fiber. 
The felting, or matting, quality of wool is much increased by 
treating the wool with acid or alkaline solutions or even w'ith 
boiling water. Such treatment softens the fiber and ojkmis up 
the scales to such an extent that, when the fabric is cooled or 

* Chariotte Gibbs Baker. Seven Textile Fil)ers. Journal of Home 
Economics, 8:3:144-147. 




TEXTILES 317 

dried, the fibers interlock more firmly than under ordinary- 
conditions.* 

Adulter'ation. 

Since the demand for woolen cloth far exceeds the supply of 
new wool, there are many devices for making the supply go a 
long way, and consequently many methods for deceiving the 
buyer. The manufacturer seeks a material cheaper than the 
fiber he wishes to adulterate, one which can be concealed readily. 
Wool when combined with the cheaper cotton fiber makes a 
material which wears well, but does not keep its shape as well 
as all-wool cloth, is less warm, and should of course demand a 
lower price than all-wool. Because of the felting property of 
wool, it is quite possible to conceal a good deal of cotton under 
the surface of the woolen cloth, and when the fibers are mixed 
before the threads are spun, the task of detecting them becomes 
doubly difficult.! 

By the modern methods of manufacturing, cotton and wool 
mixtures are becoming much more satisfactory, and for certain 
types of garments, such as dresses and caps, where there is no 
particular strain on any part, the mixture has proved satis- 
factory. Only by combining fibers is the manufacturer able to 
meet the great demand for material. For an outer suit and an 
overcoat, nothing has been found more satisfactory than the 
all-wool material. 

The most reliable tests for a mixture of cotton and wool are 
chemical or microscopic, but as these are not practicable for the 
average buyer, others must be sought. Wool has luster and kinks; 
the ends of the threads are stiff and look rather wiry. When a 
sample is carried home, burning will serve to distinguish be- 
tween the two. Wool burns slowly, chars, has an odor of burnt 
feather, goes out easily, and leaves a crisp ash; cotton burns 
quickly with a flame, with little odor, and leaves no ash. A 
little practice in breaking the threads will help one to distin- 
guish between the two; the difference is not one that can be 
easily explained, but the experienced housewife knows it well. J 

* Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. t Opus cil. J Opus cit. 



318 .1 .i/.i.\/.i/. (ir HOME M.\i<i\'(; 

Woolnifi and ivorsU'ds. 

l\\i) classes of cloth arc niMmifacturcd from wool: woolons 
and worst ('(is. Woolens arc made p;ciicrally of short wool 
cardcil and spun into yarn in which the fibers lie in all direc- 
tions. This is woven into cloth, the surface of which usually is 
heavily felted, as in flannel blankets, so that all of the inter- 
sections of tiireads in weaving are covered. In materials of 
this class the manufacturer has f^reat, opportunity to introduce 
either shoddy or cotton, for the fibers may easily be c(jvercd by 
surface feltinji;. 

Worsteds are made from Ionp;er staple wool, combed and 
drawn until the fibers are parallel, then hard twisted. When 
woven, the ends of the fil)eis do not project on the suiface, and 
the finish is not intended to cover the weave; hence it is more 
difficult to adulterate imless entire cotton threads are woven 
with the worsted, and these are more easily detected than either 
a mixture of cotton and wool, or shoddy in woolen cloth. Com- 
mon examj^les of woolens are flannel, broadcloth, and Venetian 
cloth; of worsteds, serge, challie, men's suitings, and voile. 
IMohair is a worsted cloth woven of the wool of the Angora goat, 
with a warp usually of cotton or silk.* 

It is economical to buy good worsted fabrics for the following 
reasons: They arc made from new, long, wool fibers and there- 
fore make a strong fabric; they seldom contain shoddy; they 
hold in place well when pressed; they are firml}- woven and are 
not easily fiayed; they will endure constant wear for more than 
one season and, if cared for, will look well as long avS they last. 

Shoddy* 

As has been pointed out, the demand for woolen goods is so 
much greater than the supply that it is necessary to resort to 
various measures to increase the supply of cloth. One method 
is to use the wool over and over again. Rags are bought up by 
the rag-man, sold to the largei' dealer, again to the "shoddy" 
manufacturer, who cleans them, sorts them, tears them to 
pieces, and uses the best all-wool rags to protluce fibers, which 

*Opus cil. 



TEXTILES 319 

are re-spun and again woven, either separately, if of very good 
quality, or mixed with new wool or cotton. Such a material 
is warm, looks well for a time, and has its place, but must not 
be bought for new wool or demand the price of good woolen 
cloth. This industry is enormous and shoddy is often found in 
expensive novelty materials as well as in cheap "all-wool" 
cloth. Because of the shortness of the fibers, it may be detected 
readily when used alone, but in combination with good wool it 
is more difficult to detect. 

One class of shoddy consists of very short fibers, clippings 
from the mills, which are worked into the surface of a felted 
cloth after it is woven. These short fibers after a time work out, 
and are found in the bottoms of coats and inside the linings, 
leaving the surface of the cloth threadbare. 

Characteristics and uses of some common woolen materials. 

Albatross. — A material of plain weave and rather open texture. On the 
surface is a printed or impressed design giving a crepe effect. It is used 
for dresses. 

Alpaca. — A thin fabric of close texture made from the fibers of an animal 
of the llama species. Since this fiber is hard to spin, it is generally combined 
with a cotton or a silk warp. It is used for linings and dresses. 

Astrakhan.- — A fabric with a curly, wavy surface resembling astrakhan 
fleece. It is used for dress and coat trimming, such as collar and muff sets. 

Bedford cord. — A fine woolen cloth with ribs of different widths running 
with the length. It is often all-wool, but the raised ribs are sometimes 
padded with cotton. It is used for dresses. 

Bolivia cloth. — A close felted material, very thick but light in weight. 
The surface is often wavy. It is used for suits and coats. 

Brilliantine. — -A cloth resembling mohair, generally a plain weave with 
a cotton or silk warp. It has a hard wiry feel. It is used for dresses and 
linings for heavy coats and suits. 

Broadcloth. — A soft, closely woven material with a satin finish. The 
surface is napped in the finishing process and then pressed down. The 
best qualities are called satin broadcloth. It is used for dresses and suits. 

Bunting. — A plain, even thread weave of mohair, wool, or worsted. 
It is used for flags. 

Cashmere. — Made from the hair of the cashmere goat. The surface is 
twilled but rather uneven, since the yarn is very difficult to spin. It is 
used for dresses and wraps. 

Challis. — A plain, even weave of soft texture. A challis design is always 
printed. It is used for dresses, kimonos, and children's dresses. 



320 .1 MAXIM, or HOME MAKfXr; 

Chci'uU. — A stout woolen rlolli woven with n nilln r s1i;ihk>' Kiirfacc. It 
is us(h1 for dresses, suits, and wraps. 

Chinchilla. — Heavy coating material with row^h wavy surface. 

Covert. — Heavy twilled cloth generally in natural undyed .shades. It 
is used for suit.s and coats. 

Fc//.— Fabric made hy pressing a ma.ss of wool hl>er together. It is 
used for padding, banners, and table-covers. 

Flatuicl. — Coarse-threaded, loosely woven, light-weight fabric morr- or 
less spongy and elastic. It is used for baby dres.ses and garments. 

French flannel. — A fine soft twill-woven variety dyed in solid colors, 
also printed. It is used for dresses and waists. 

Shaker flannel. — .\ variety of white flannel finished with a nap. Cotton 
warp and woolen filling. It is used for bal)y dresses. 

Mackinaw. — A very lieavy blanket-like material u.sed by lumbermen 
and outdoor workers for overshirts and jackets. 

Silk-icarp flannel. — A high-grade, pure variety of flannel woven with a 
silk warp. It is used for infants' wear, shawls, and vmdergarments. 

Baby flannel. — A light-weight variety of flannel. It is u.sed for children's 
and infants' wear. 

Gloria. — Plain weave of silk and wool, or silk and cotton. It is used for 
umbrella coverings. 

Grenadine. — An openwork net-like fabric in fancy designs. Woven of 
silk wool, mohair, or cotton. It is used for dresses. 

Henrietta. — A twilled cashmere of light weight. It is used for dresses. 

Homespun. — A rough, loosely woven material. The yarns are often 
quite uneven. It is used for men's and women's suitings and coatings. 

Kersey. — A felted satin-finish woolen fabric with a satin weave on the 
back. It is used for overcoats. 

Linsey woolsey. — A coarse cloth of linen and wool. It is used for inex- 
pensive skirts and dresses. 

Melton. — A thick heavj' woolen fabric with a short nap. It generally 
comes in black or dark blue. It is used for coats and suits. 

Panama cloth. — Woven of worsted yarn in a plain weave. A solid color 
usually piece-dyed, or dyed after it is woven. It is used for dre.s.ses and 
suits. 

Prunella.- — A rich, satin-faced worsted fabric, usually in i)lain colors. 
It is used for suits and dresses. 

Serge. — Worsted material with twill weave. This material comes in 
many weights and qualities. It may be obtained in any color. It is used 
for suits and dresses. 

Sicilian. — Heavy-weight cotton warp, mohair filled cloth. It is used 
for dresses and linings. 

Tartans. — Plaids of various Scottish clans. They are worn as diagonal 
scarfs. 

Tweed. — A soft, woolly, rough-finished woolt^ii material. It is usually 



TEXTILES 



321 



Avovon of }\irns of two or more shades or colors. It is used for suits and 
separate skirts. 

Velour. — -A thick, soft, felted material. It is used for suits and coats. 

Viama. — A soft wool cloth with a teasled surface, resembling cheviot. 
It is used for waists. 

Voile. — Material woven with a plain, even weave and a hard twisted 
yarn. It is dyed in plain colors. It is used for dresses. 

Whipcord. — Whipcord is much like serge with a pronounced diagonal 
line. It is used for suits and dresses. 

Diagonal. — A material with a serge weave. The diagonal effect is made 
very prominent. It is used for suits, dresses and separate skirts. 

Unfinished worsted. — A fabric woven with yarn of little twist. The 
twill effect of the weave is covered with loose fibers. This material is 
very dense. It is used for suits and coats. 

Finished worsted. — Woven in much the same way as unfinished worsted 
but with a much tighter twisted yarn. The weave may be distinctly seen. 
It is not so dense as the unfinished worsted. It is used for suits and coats. 

Zibeline. — The better grades are woven with a worsted warp and camel's 
hair filling. These long hairs from the filling spread over the surface. 
It is used for suits. 



SILK 

Silk is commonly known as the fiber of luxury. It is the most 
expensive to cultivate, the most beautiful, and the strongest 
fiber. Since it is the most expensive to 
buy, and the demand for it is so large, 
the temptations to adulterate are also 
naturally very great. The long, 
strong, lustrous silk fiber which 
bleaches and dyes beautifully, and is 
fine as a spider's web is not to be du- 
plicated (Fig. 60). The besfc grade, or 
"reeled silk," is taken from the cocoon 
in one continuous thread which may 
be several hundred yards long. In 
manufacturing reeled silk, many de- 
fective cocoons are found in which 
the fibers are not perfect or are broken. 
The silk from these cocoons may be 
treated like a short fiber and spun into threads varying in 
strength according to the length of the fibers. This so-called 




Fig. 



60. — Silk fiber, showing 
the two minute filaments 
from the spinnerets of 
the silk worm and the 
gum which at first holds 
these two filaments to- 
gether. 



:V22 A MAXIM, or noMi-: makisc, 

"spun" silk lias not. I lie lii^li luster nor siicii^lli of "rccird" 
silk, l)ii( is often usetl as warp with reeled silk (illitiji. or in 
imilation pon^;i'e, and hack of satins, \-el\'et>, and in nian\' other 
ways.* 

In the raw state, silk is sold hy the pound. Three thousand 
silkworms are re(|uired to spin one pound of silk, and one to 
two pounds are re(iuired for a dress, ^^'ll<'n tiicso figures arc, 
considered, it will he seen wli\- ^ood >ilk must neces.sarily he 
expensive. There is, however, a demand for a product at a 
moderate price, and in oider to satisfy it, the manufacturer 
resorts to methods of adultei'ation.f 

Adulteration .% 

In olden times the price of silk was mucii p;reater than now, 
hut the material was nuich more durahle. Silks which have heen 
laid away for a hundred years are still in fairly fj;ood condition. 
At present silks are much cheaper, l)ut the result is that when 
they arc put away, even for only a few montiis they may fall 
into l)its, and their weariiifz; (luality cannot he compared with 
old silks. The rea.son for this chanfi;e is not hard to find. The 
cost of raw silk is al^out thirty times that of raw cotton and the 
waste at least five times that of cotton. The manufacturer 
must make up in some way if he is to sell silk at the prices de- 
manded by the puhlic. 

Silk has a very great abilit}' to absorb dyes and metallic 
salts without apparently changing the quality of the material, 
and since dyes and metallic salts arc much cheaper than pure 
silk, the manufacturer makes great use of these materials. 
Loading is the common name for this process of treating silk, 
and it is common practice to add 30 per cent of foreign material, 
just the percentage lost by the silk when the gum is removed, 
while it is possil)le to add 250 or even 300 jxm* cent. 

When one buys novelties and does not care how short their 
life is to be, these heavily weighted silks answer the purpose very 

* Univ. of 111., Bull. 1.-). 

t Cornoll Rciidinn-Courso for the F:vrin Home, Bull. 45. 

X Univ. of 111., Bull. lo. 



TEXTILES 323 

well, but they are not durable. Practically no silk can be found 
on the market entirely free from loading, but there is a great 
difference in the amount present. 

Another method of adulterating silk is with cotton and mer- 
cerized cotton. The fibers are not spun together here as the 
cotton and wool, but the threads of the two materials are woven 
together. In satins, velvets, and brocades the cotton is entirely 
covered by the silk threads on the surface, and appears as the 
back of the cloth. In cheap silks a fine cotton thread sometimes 
forms either warp or filling. 

Pongee is a material made from the cocoon of the unculti- 
vated silkworm; rajah, tussah, and other uneven, coarse mate- 
rials are from the same source. These silks are very strong, but 
do not have a high luster. Mercerized cotton looks quite silky 
and is sometimes mixed with these silks, or a material of mer- 
cerized cotton and spun silk may be sold for pongee, or even a 
material entirely of mercerized cotton. 

Characteristics and uses of some common silk fabrics. 

Bengaline. — Very similar to cotton rep. Woven entirely of silk but often 
padded with wool or cotton. It is used for waists and dresses. 

Brocade. — A fabric woven with raised figures on a plain ground. Often 
a combination of plush and satin weave. It is used for coats and dresses. 

Brocatel. — -A kind of brocade often having wool figures on a silk back- 
ground. It is used for draperies and upholstering. 

Chenille. — Cloth woven with a soft fuzzy face. It is used for curtains. 

Chiffon. — A thin, transparent silk material with plain weave. It is used 
for dress trimmings, fancy work, and miJlinery. 

China silk. — A plain woven, light-weight silk. The warp and filling 
are evenly balanced. This silk may be obtained in any color. It is used 
for gowns, waists, and underclothing. 

Cripe de chine. — A soft lustrous silk woven with tightly twisted threads. 
The threads are so twisted and woven as to make a crdpe. It may be ob- 
tained in printed designs or plain. It is used for dresses, waists, and under- 
garments. 

Foulard. — A plain silk cloth, very soft and' highly finished. This silk 
wears excellently. It is used for dresses. 

India .silk. — iVery similar to China silk. Originally woven in India. 

Japanese silk. — Similar to China and India silk. 

■Jersey cloth. — This material is a soft knitted fabric in plain colors. It 
is used for dresses, suits, and gloves. 



321 .1 M.wiM. or iio.Mi-: m.\ki.\(: 

Mitcnr. — ('rep<' ili- iiu-tror is similar t<i crfiix' do cliiiK- in tcxtiiri-. Its 
face is more satiny. It is used for waists and drcss(»s. 

Mnirt. — A waved or watered efTect produced on pl.iin or ril)l»e(l silk. 
It is used for dresses, trinuninns, ami linings. 

I'luinc. — A name appli<'d to velvets when the pile is presse<l down K>vin(; 
a lii^h luster. It is used for coats, evening dres.ses, and millinery. 

Pcaii (k Koic. — .\ heavy, soft-finished silk material. It is .so woven that 
fine close ribs may be seen rumiinn with the (illiiiK. Better grades are the 
same on both sides. It is used for dre.s.ses and coats. 

Plmh. — Long-piled fal)ric resembling velvet. It is used for wraps and 
dre.s.ses. 

Pongee. — A soft plain unl)leached washable silk. It is u.sed for wai.sts, 
droivses, and coats. 

Poplin. — A ribbed material resembling cotton poplin. It is u.sed for 
dresses, waists, and suits. 

Sarcenet. — An open, i)lain, rather stiff silk resembling cotton mull. It 
is used for hat linings. 

Satin. — .\ silk material with a very high finish cau.sed by the floating 
of silk threads over the surface. There are many qualities and variations 
of this material. It is used for dres.ses, Unings, and trimmings. 

Taffeta. — Taffeta is either plain or woven in lines so fine as to appear 
perfectly plain. It may be obtained in a great number of ornamental 
patterns such as fancy cords, plaids, and stripes, both printed and woven. 
It is used for dresses, suits, and trimmings. 

Trdle. — Openwork silk n(>t. It is used for draperies iind evening 
dressers. 

Velvet. — Material so woven that the surface is covered with jirojecting 
fibers. The better qualities are made entirely of silk. It is used for dresses, 
coats, and suits. 

Velveteen. — A material woven in imitation of velvet, but made wholly 
of cotton. It is used for dresses and suits. 

AIITIFICI.\L SILK 

For 3'cars chemists of America and I'Airope have endeavored 
to make a fiber which would compare favorably with .silk. A 
number of so-called artificial silks have been made synthetically, 
but each has lacked some desired ciiaracteristic. One has not 
withstood moi.sture, another lacked streno;th, a third was not 
sufficiently pliable, and so on. It is only recently that a .satis- 
factory fiber, which can be manufactured at a reasonable price, 
has been developed. The artificial silk now commonly found on 
the market is a coUodian-like substance, made fn^n cotton or 
wool fiber, put through capillary tubes, hardened in the air and 



TEXTILES 325 

so treated that it will withstand moisture. This fiber may be 
manufactured at a cost below that of pure silk, and has the 
promise of a great future.* 

The -artificial, or fiber, silk is used in many knitted sweaters, 
scarfs, dress braids, fancy ribbons and is combined with both 
pure silk and cotton. It may always be detected by its bril- 
liancy and stiffness. If the burning test is used, artificial silk 
is found to burn with almost explosive rapidity. It also dis- 
integrates if it comes in contact with water; but this deficiency 
is being gradually overcome by science. 

RAMIE 

Ramie, a vegetable fiber of antiquity, has until very re- 
cently been used almost exclusively in China and Japan. A 
highly lustrous fiber, in this respect surpassing linen, and very 
white, its use has been limited by the difficulty with which the 
fiber is removed from the surrounding woody tissue. Ramie has 
been used in combination with silk and cotton, its luster making 
it hard to distinguish when woven with silk, and adding rich- 
ness when combined with cotton. Japanese and Chinese em- 
broideries on this material have been common in the markets for 
some years, but only recently has ramie linen, by the piece, 
been sold in this country. As methods for producing the fiber 
are improved, more of it may be expected to appear on the 
market, and the shortage of European linen due to the war may 
give an impetus to the importation of ramie from the Orient.f 

At present, ramie is combined with cotton or Hnen or used 
alone in making dress materials. 

JUTE 

Jute, another vegetable fiber, is familiar in sacking, twine, 
and door-mats, but it is not expected in finer materials. The 
natural color of this fiber is somewhat darker than linen color, 
it is harsh and coarse, yet it has considerable luster. In burlap 
the fiber is used alone, while in monk's cloth it is combined with 

* Baker, Charlotte Gibbs. Seven Textile Fibers. Journal of Home 
Economics, 8:3:144-147. 

t Journal of Home Economics, 8:3: 144-147. 



:V2{') A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC 

cotloii in a heavy inalciial. In its nalnral color il adds a ph-as- 
in^; fonc to a incuc dcniin-likc cotton and jute fabric, j)afticu- 
laily ulicn the cotton is in soft tones.* 

IKSIS I'OK rAHKKsf 

A general conipaiison of fabrics nuiy \k\ made, but this will 
mean little even to the expert, since each class includes so great 
a variety' of fabrics which dilTer widely in appearance, feel, and 
strength. 

Feel 

The feel of many fabrics very closely resembles that of the 
raw fiber. 

Cotton material: TnrcsyKnisivo, soft, and inelastic. Cotton bccau.so of 
its inelasticity cru.she.s easily. It may be made to look and feel .scjmewhat 
like wool, but it always retains its inelastic characteristic. 

Wool material: Springy, harsh, and elastic. The elasticity of wool is 
one of its most desirable qualities. If a woolen garment becomes wrinkled, 
many of the creases fall out if the garment is merely hung away. This 
responsiveness is caused by its elasticitj*. If woolen material is combined 
with much cotton or shoddy in cither s])iiming or weaving, it lo.ses much 
of its elasticity. 

Silk material: Smooth, cool, and very clastic. If silk is of good quality, 
it is the most clastic material. For this reason, silk garments hung away 
will look very smooth and fresh in a .short time. Silk loses this quality 
when adulterated with mercerized cotton or heavily weighted. 

Linen material: Firm, stiff, smooth, cold, very inelastic, and leathery 
if woven with a firm weave. The very inelastic (luality of linen causes it to 
crush readily and thus to require continual i)ressing. If adulterated with 
cotton, it loses somewhat its firmness and smoothness. 

Artificial silk material: Very smooth, wiry, and cold. Artificial silk 
material is very unyielding. If combined with another fiber, it is much 
more satisfactory. 

Ra-mie: Firm and stiff. It resembles both linen and cotton. It docs not 
crush quite so easily as linen. 

Strength. 

No satisfactory comparison of the sticniith of diff(M-ent fal)rics 
can be made, since this depends on the size ami (iiiaiity of the 

* Journal of Home Economics, 8:3:144-147. 

t This material is condensed from Tests for Fabrics as discussed in 
Dressmaking, l)y Jane Falcs, pul)Iished by Charles Scribner's Sons. 



TEXTILES 327 

yarn and the kind and quality of the weave. The strength 
of a fabric has much to do with its wearing quahty, but there can 
be no fixed standard. Each fabric should be sufficiently strong 
for the purpose for which it is intended. 

The warp and filling threads should be equally balanced 
either in numbers or size of yarn. Dimity is an example of 
unbalanced warp and filling; it is well known that after a few 
washings, dimity breaks along the heavy threads. The weaving 
should be well done with the threads closely enough woven to 
give firmness and body to the cloth without any adulteration 
and sizing. 

The strength of the warp and the filling threads may be 
tested by breaking the threads after raveling. The size and 
twist of the yarns should also be observed. 

The threads should not slip out of place with a slight strain. 
To test durability in this respect, two edges may be pinned to- 
gether as for a common seam, and the material opened apart 
and pulled on both sides of the pin. If the pin makes conspicu- 
ous holes in the material, one may be sure the cloth cannot be 
satisfactorily used for a garment that would have strain at the 
seams. 

Color. 

Color is affected by various factors, chiefly by washing, boil- 
ing, soap, hot irons, wear, friction, and exposure to sun and 
air. 

Cotton and linens must generally be tested for laundering. 
A sample should be cut in two, and one-half kept fresh. The 
other half should be subjected to vigorous soap and water 
washing, dried, pressed, and then compared with the original 
sample. The sample may be exposed to strong sunlight by 
placing it outdoors for a few hours or days. Half of the sample 
should be kept covered so that the degree of fading may be 
observed. 

Materials worn next to the skin should have sufficiently fast 
color to withstand friction. They may be tested by vigorous 
rubbing with a piece of clean white cloth. 



328 .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISU 

liiirni'iHi. 

Buniiiij; ;i small sample of clotli ^ivcs alxml the same result 
as burning the fiber. The closeness of the weave may somewhat 
retard the rapidity of the burning. This is one of the l)est arul 
most reliaijle tests for the housewife. 

Cotton: Since cotton is cellulose, it l)urns like paper or wood. Cotton 
material l)iirns rapidly and with a steady j-ellow flame leaving a pray !i.sh 
without residue. 

Wool: Wool burns much like hair, .smoulderiiiK and heeoming extin- 
guished often. Woolen material leaves oily, gummy globules as a residue. 

Silk: Since silk is an animal fil)er, it burns much like wool, although 
more rapidly, witii a blue leaping flame. It leaves an oily, gummy globule. 
Unless silk material is weighted, when burned it is similar to the silk fiber. 
If the silk material is heavily weighted, (he burned fal)ric leaves a shell-like 
residue slightly smaller than the sample. This remaining shell is the 
weighting which does not burn easily; it crumbles at the slightest touch. 
More sati.sfactory than lighting a silk sample is to place the sample on a 
tin dish and set it in a very hot oven. The silk will burn away leaving the 
weighting in the shape of the original sample. 

Linen: Since linen is a veg<>table fil)er, it burns in much the same way 
as cotton. It is slightly less inflammable than cotton, because it has more 
oil; it leaves al)out the same ash. 

Union goods: In testing union goods, or materials made of several dif- 
ferent fibers, the problem is more didicult. In this case the material is 
frayed and both the warp and the filling tested .separately. To carry the 
test still further, both the warp and the filling threads may be untwisted 
and the various fibers in each yarn tested. 

Tearing. 

The tearing of material will help to determine in a fj;eneral 
way the kind of fiber as well as the strength of the material. 

Cotton material: Cotton material tears easily witli a shrill sound. The 
torn edges are fuzzy and have a tendency to curl. 

W^ool material: Wool material tears with a dull or mufHed .sound. The 
ease with which the cloth tears depends on the weight of the yarn and the 
weave. If cotton .nnd wool arc woven together, the kinds of fibers may 
often be distinguished along the tear. 

Plain silks: Plain silks tear with a rather clean edge and give a shrill 
sound. If corded, the silk tears with difficulty if at all. 

Linen: Linen tears with difTiculty, leaving the ends of the broken threads 
with long straight smooth fil)ers projecting. If cotton is present in a linen 
fabric, it may often be distinguished along the torn edges. 



■■'"""" TEXTILES 329 

WEAVE * 

The weave affects the appearance and often the wearing 
quality of cloth. A close twill weave makes a firm, durable ma- 
terial, while the loose basket weave gives quite a different effect 
and is frequently lacking in firmness. The satin or sateen 
weave makes a beautiful surface especially in linens or silks, 
but may cover up defects in the hidden threads. Fancy weaves 
in cotton novelties, in shirt-waist materials, and in fancy mulls, 
often leave loose threads which become soiled easily and may not 
be as attractive after washing. A cloth with a very heavy cross 
thread or filling, and a very fine warp, or vice versa, may split 
because of the great difference in the strength of the threads. 

Sometimes figures are woven in such a way that when the 
cloth is finished each figure has short ends of thread. For ex- 
ample, in weaving madras curtain material, the filling thread 
which makes the figure, jumps from one figure to another, and 
after the material leaves the loom, the loose threads on the back 
of the material are cut off. Often these short pieces wash out, 
or the ends become rough and fuzzy looking. 

* Univ. of III., Bull. 15. 



CHArn:H \v 

THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 
By liKi laii Blackmokh 

To the woman uciicially falls the responsibility of tho wise 
or unwiso exiKMulituro of that i)art of the family income ap- 
portioned to clothing. Whether she spends wisely depends on 
her knowledge of all phases of the clothing problem. 

One of the first questions that arises is whether she shall buy 
ready-made garments or buy the materials and make similar 
garments at home. The conditions surrounding each indivitiual 
or family are so different as to make impossible an answer to 
this question which will suit all cases. Probably skill, time, and 
the Umitation of one's purse are the most influential factors in 
such a choice. 

When selecting materials or garments, one should l)e able to 
judge the durabilit}-, including the quality of the material, 
their suitability to the occasion for which the garments are to be 
worn and to the wearer, the becomingness of color and line, and 
the price in relation to the clothing allowance from the income. 

Clothes have the jiower to make persons feel comfortable and 
at ease or to make them conspicuous and unhappy. This does 
not mean that the costume need be new or old; it means that 
it should l)e appropriate and becoming. It means adapting 
the prevailing style to one's own type of figure and personality. 
A person may be just as conspicuous in an ultra-fashionable 
costume as in one that is very out-of-date; but eitlier may be 
adapted to conform with good taste, without a great e.xpendi- 
ture of time or money. 

To be well dressed the woman who makes her own garments 
must depend largely on familiarity with the principles of design, 
a critical, discriminating, and thoughtful attitude toward cloth- 

330 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 331 

ing, common sense, skill in the manipulation of fabrics, in 
draping, or in cutting cloth by a pattern, and knowledge of the 
best equipment to be used. ''Right dress is, therefore, that 
which is fit for the station in life, and the work to be done in it, 
and which is otherwise graceful, becoming, lasting, healthful and 
easy; on occasion splendid; always as beautiful as possible."* 

Dictates of fashion too often outweigh one's good judgment, 
which in this case should have as a background the principles of 
design. Clothing should interpret the personality of the wearer 
and emphasize pleasing elements of face or figure rather than 
exhibit the prevailing fashion, which often exaggerates defi- 
ciencies instead of concealing them. 

No costume can be artistic or picturesque, although it may 
be considered fashionable, if it perverts the natural lines of the 
figure. In good design it is generally possible to emphasize 
the good points or lines of the figure and to make the less de- 
sirable lines inconspicuous. This necessitates careful considera- 
tion of the silhouette. Simplicity in silhouette, in line, in the 
divisions of the costume made by line or dark and light, and in 
decoration, cannot be overestimated. The search for greater 
simplicity and for original detail are the two principles followed 
by the greatest designers. 

Of equal importance with line and the spaces formed by these 
lines is the study of color, texture — an extremely subtle surface 
quality of a fabric often confused with color — and dark and light 
values (pages 45 to 47). This is a problem for each individ- 
ual; it can not be studied too much. After deciding, then, on 
the type of gown necessary for the occasion for which it is to be 
worn, the following phases of costume design must be considered, 
if the result is to be harmonious and beautiful: silhouette; line, 
including space division and balance; dark and light spacing; 
color; texture. 

It is unwise to lay down hard and fast rules for the use of 
suitable color in costumes for different types of persons, be- 
cause general rules may have many exceptions. The following 
table, however, may be suggestive. 

* John Ruskin. Arrows of the Chace. 



332 



.1 MAXIM, ol- IIOMK MAKfXn 





Hair 

Red 

Auburn 
Eye» 

blue 

brown 


a 
2 

a o 

C 

It 

C 









3 
3 

;, 2 

2 ^ 

" 

c "a 


.5* 

c 

^_: — 

Cms 


DO 

u 

c 


2 

a 

i 1 

25 fcl 


- M 

1 = 

III 


a 

~-3 

=; o 

-■^ o 


£ 

C3 

1 


& 
1 


«7 

s c 


t 
a 

S 

a 


E 
a 


bS 

a. 
>• 

E- 
U 

a 

b. 
b. 

Q 


5 =^ =» 


E 

g 






c ■= = 

^ .1 

> aT3 


a 

C3 

-§ 
C2 a 


u 

s 

o 
e: 

B. 

a. 
< 

m 
a 



o 
> 

03 
< 


•569 89 |,a;;o 
55 . fej 


■3 

O 


O 


O 

IS -a 


7 Z: 

■mm 
■C a 

C3 

C 

■3^ 


'" » 9 

■a s^'Z! 
Ill 

c- 8 


C 4- 

^= c 


u^2„2 
1=5 6q 


O i 3-5 


"3 
ll 

£ 


II 
1- 




-a 
a 

g = " 

i a 

■^ M 

&o£ 

t = M 

u 




u 
^ 


5 




Ic 

^ 


2 




K 


c 




THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



333 





Hair 
Red 
Auburn 

Eyes 
Blue 
Gray 
Brown 


-a — 

«! O in 

■o ^-a 
^2-2 p 


s 




0, 

■0 >> 


a 




e 

^ 
i- 2 


s 

•S 

c 

1 

o 

a 

b. 

O 

» 
H 
b 
>< 

H 

H 




I 


=3 C 

i!l 

— C3 0) 





S 
a 
is 

a 

■3 



a 


03 

d *" 
— ^ a 
>. ' 

.gS.S 

oj-^ 
o-r- " 


T3 



a 

a 
■q. 






-0 

J3 

*^ a 

tn t~i 

S p 
o2 


1 SB 


a)'' 3 

C3'~' 


-0 


-3 
■3 


^ : 

T3 
— 

■g.^O-3 

l-s;? § 


03^ 

.2 >> 

.a 

2o 

^11 



U 

s 

O 

IS 

< 

K 

>J 
O 

> 
>< 

w 
►J 

pa 

<; 

H 


^1 .. 

eg so 
S5 6q 


0) 

'3 
S 

.S 
>> 


§ 


-3 


bO 

b 

> 


7. 


Cardinal and clear 
rose good if skin is 
clear. If rosy cheeks 
red may reflect too 
much color 


t." 

.s s 

g 


Almost all shades of 
violet and purple are 
good if white is worn 
next to face 


^1 1 
-J 2 „2 


O m (U 

-3 & a 
■3 g^-g 

Ills 


If rich color in face, 
warm browns are 
good. Use neutral 
or grayish brown if 
sallow 


"3 .^ 

— > 

3 M 
r^ '^ a 

|:l 
111 




c 

*»1 M 


C3 
3a 

. Oi 

■£0, 

3 

•> ag 

-3feS 








E 
P3 


T3 


C 


a 

3 
PL, 



3.^1 .1 .l/.l.\/ .W. or IKiMi: MAhlXC 

KQl'II'MKNT FOli THK SKWlNii HOOM 

Good oc|uipiii('n1 is iicccssMrv if flic lioinc worker is lo lurii 
oiil jrood work with the Ic.i-t drain on Imt own strciiKtli. In 
addition to the ciistoinary pieces of e(|uipin('nt , a floor cloth, a 
dress form, a sleeve form, and pressinfj; hoards are almost neces- 
sary conveniences. 

A floor cloth is a Iar{z;o square of clf)th or a sheet which may he 
placed on the floor under the machine to catch ravelin^s and 
cuttinjis. This cloth may then he folded around the hase of the 
machine at night and opened when work is resumed, or it may 
he shaken. 

A dress-form is almost incHspensahle, when good work and 
time are considered. This may he ohtained at a department 
store, or ordered directly from a manufacturer. A dress-form 
is bought by size, the number corresponding to ready-made gar- 
ments. A form one or two sizes too small should be selected 
and padded out to the correct size. Only in this way is one 
able to make a form showing individual measurements. A tight- 
fitting lining must be made of some very heavy material, such 
as unbleached muslin or drilling, and fitted on the person. The 
normal armhole, n(>ck, bust, waist and hip-line should be 
marked. The lining should be made to extend about 10 inches 
below the waist-line or to fit well down over the fullest ]iart of 
the body. This lining should then be placed on the form and 
padded out with tissue paper, hair, or excelsior. The lining 
should be overhanded firmly together in the back, from the top 
of the collar to the bottom of the peplum. It is also desirable to 
make a skirt for the figure which will fit tightly around the hips. 

A sleeve board and a skirt board, well padded, are very use- 
ful. It is also convenient to have a padded broom handle over 
which scams may be pressed without markuig the remainder of 
the garment. 

Sewing machine* 

There are two types of sewing machine in use — the auto- 
matic, or single-thread, and the lock stitch, or two-thread 
* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Ayr., I'niv. of 111. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 335 

machine. The single-thread machine makes a chain stitch, 
which requires about a half more thread than the double- 
thread machine. The stitch on the former is a very fine, pretty 
one, and for thin cotton and linen materials it cannot be ex- 
celled. The ends of the thread must be fastened to prevent 
the stitching from ripping out. The two-thread machine, which 
makes a lock stitch, has a greater variety of uses, as the tension 
is adjustable to the material which is being used. The thread- 
ing, operating, and biUng of the machine, and the use of the at- 
tachments are all described in the instruction book which ac- 
companies the machine. The following suggestions will be of 
assistance to those who are unfamiliar with the operation of the 
lock stitch machine: (1) Practice treading until it can be done 
easily and evenly; (2) practice stitching, first on paper before 
the machine is threaded, then on material, either plain or striped; 
(3) be able to remove the bobbin, thread it, and replace it, 
and always draw up the bobbin thread before beginning to 
stitch; (4) practice threading the machine, and then stitch 
until good straight lines can be made; (5) to turn a corner, 
have the needle at its lowest point and use it as a pivot; (6) 
in removing the work from the machine, have the needle at 
its highest point, raise the presser foot, and draw the material 
back and to the left, cut the threads with the thread-cutter or 
with scissors; (7) where there is no cross stitching, always 
draw the ends of the threads to the wrong side and tie them; (8) 
good stitching depends on several factors: (a) Correct length 
of stitch: The length should conform to the material. Heavy 
cloth requires a longer stitch than does a thin material. The 
length is regulated by a screw, (b) The tension: The tension 
is also governed by the material. In a perfect tension the bobbin 
and the spool threads lock in the center of the thickness of the 
cloth. If the bobbin thread is drawn to the upper side of the 
cloth as it lies in the machine, the tension is too tight; and if the 
spool thread is drawn to the lower side, the tension is too loose. 
The tension is regulated by a screw which turns either from 
right to left, or from front to back, (c) The needle: The needle 
should be the correct size to carry the thread which is being used. 



:{;?(i 



.1 M.WIM. or llnMi: M.\Kl\(; 







Fi 



He sui'c that tlic point i> ji«»<ii|, .■iinl thai the iH'c<llr is set cor- 
rccl I y. 

I'itKl'AltAIION OF .MATERIALS 

Shrinking 

Nearly all cottons and linens should he shrunken before heing 
made up. rrol)ai)ly the most satisfactory way is to place the 

folded piece of material in a tub 
of lukewarm water and to allow it 
to remain in tlie water for about 
one hour. The material must be 
thorouffhly wet, even to the inner- 
most fold. The material should 
then be removed from the water, 
})ut not wrunp;, because wrinkles 
will appear which will be difficult 
to press out. The greater the care 
taken in hanging the material to 
dry, the easier it is to press later. 
The material should be hung with 
the material, which is then the sclvage as straight as possible, 
pressed with a hot iron. It It should be ironed just before it 

is often necessary to repeat i i , i • . i 

this process several times, becomes dry, great care bemg taken 
If the material is to fit over to iron it with the warp and filling 
a curved surface such as the threads, or with strokes both par- 

hip or the shoulder, a cushion n i , i i • i 

should be used in pressing. aliel to the selvage and at right 

angles to it. It is most important 
to keep the warp and filling straight, to prevent difficulty in 
placing a pattern on the grain of the material. 

Sponging. 

All woolen fabrics should ])e sponged to prevent .shrinking 
and water spotting. This is often done either in the store, at a 
small cost a yard, or at the factory. In case it is necessary to 
do the sponging at home, a large table covered with a soft 
padding, over which is placed unbleached muslin, is better 
than an ironing-board, as more surface maj' l)e covered at one 
time. The covering must be held firmly in place to prevent 



. fil. — Method of .'^hrinkiiiK 
fullness out of a Karment. By 
means of two or three gather- 
ing threads the material is 
drawn up to the desired size. 
A damp cloth is placed over 




Plate XII. — Use of form in draping dresses before and after fitting. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 337 

wrinkles from marring the surface of the material. The material 
is placed face down on the pressing table, a wet cloth is laid over 
it, and a fairly hot iron is used. After enough pressing has been 
done to make the material nearly dry, the cloth is removed and 
a final pressing given directly on the wrong side of the material. 
In double-width material the same plan may be followed if the 
face of the cloth is folded in. The steam from the wet cloth 
is generally sufficient to wet all the material unless it is very 
heavy. Both sides of the double-width material should have a 
final pressing. Only a small portion of the material should be 
sponged and pressed at a time. If there is a nap, care must be 
taken to press the material with the nap. The motion of the 
iron is not a long sweep, but rather a slow motion of lifting and 
placing the iron. 

Occasionally material may be sponged on the wrong side with 
a damp cloth, then hung over a door to dry. This is a more 
simple process but often destroys the finish of the material, 
giving it a slightly crepy appearance. 

Pressing. 

Pressing may be done in much the same way as sponging, 
care being taken to lift and place the iron rather than to drag 
it along. The iron will often leave a shiny mark if placed di- 
rectly on the material; therefore, if it is necessary to press a 
garment on the right side when it is being made, a cloth should 
always be placed between the garment and the iron. 

A sample of the material should always be tested for the 
changing of color, when it is to be pressed. 

A hot iron should never be used on silk, because it takes the 
life out of the silk; a warm iron is better. It is often a good prac- 
tice in pressing seams of silk garments, to invert the iron and 
draw the seams over the iron. Velvets are very difficult to press 
and are more satisfactory if steamed (page 402). 

When it is necessary to shrink out fullness at the top of a 
sleeve or around the waist, an oval cushion is essential (Fig. 61). 
A gathering thread must be run in the full part of the gar- 
ment to hold the fullness in place. The cloth must then be 



338 



.1 .u.i.vr.i/. OF iinyu- makixc 



(laiiipciicd, pressed, ami (laiiipeiicii :i<j;,iiii iiiilil tlie fullness 1i;ls 
ilisajjpeared. 

now TO TAKE MEASUUKMKNTS (PKi. G2) 

Before iisinc; a eonimereial pattern it is best to test it to see 
wlietlier i( is approximately the coi-rect size. The foilowiiij; 




Fig. 62. — Method of taking measurements. 

mea.surements should be taken and the pattern tested by several 
of tiietn. It is not necessary to test the pattern by all these 
measurements, however, unless the figure is quite abnormal. 
The commercial patterns are verj'- well proportioned; therefore, 
if the pattern is correct in the length of the waist and the bust 
measure, it will generally prove satisfactory. In the skirt the 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 339 

test measurements used are the waist, the hip-Hne 6 inches below 
the waist, and the length of the skirt in front. 

Waist measurements: 

Place a tapeline around the waist, and pin it securely. Adjust the tape- 
line until it is as nearly parallel to the floor as possible, and at the normal 
waist-line. 

Bust measurement: Place the tapeline around the figure over the fullest 
part of the bust. An easy measurement is taken for a shirt-waist and a 
close measurement for a tight-fitting waist. Keep the tapeline rather high 
under the arms and straight across the back. 

Width of back: Measure the width of the back from armhole to armhole. 
Divide the space between the base of the neck and the waist into fourths. 
Measure the width of the back at appro.ximately the first quarter division 
below the base of the neck. 

Width of front: Measure the width of the front 13^ to 2 inches below 
the hollow at the base of the neck across the widest part of the chest from 
armhole to armhole. 

Waist: Take the measurement around the waist, keeping the tapeline 
as nearly parallel to the floor as possible. 

Length of back: From the bone at the base of the neck in the back 
straight down to the lower edge of the tapeline around the waist. 

Length of front: From the center of the hollow at the base of the neck 
straight down to the base of the tapeline placed around the waist. This 
is a rather loose measure. 

Depth of dart: This measure is not often used except when testing or 
drafting a tight-fitting lining. It is taken from the base of the neck at the 
center front in a slanting line down to the point of the bust. It averages 
from 8 to 9 inches. 

Length of under-arm: Take this measure carefully. For the shirt-waist 
one-half the length of the back may be used; but when a more careful 
measurement is necessary, the tapeline is folded over a pencil and the pencil 
slipped in under the arm and the measurement then taken to the bottom 
of a tapeline which is around the waist. The shoulder must be in a normal 
position with the arm lowered. 

Neck or collar measurements: 

Base of neck : This is a close measurement taken around the base of the 
neck. It is better to have this measurement taken too small than too 
large, because in the fitting of the waist the neck-line can easily be made 
larger. 

Top of neck: This is a close measurement around the top of the neck 
just under the chin. 

Height at back: From the base of the neck to the height required. 

Height at front: From the base of the neck in front to the height re- 
quired. 



340 .1 MA. MM. or HOMh' MAKIXC 

Iloif^hl lit side: 'I'ako this riiciLsurciiifnt just liaik of the «ar fnnii tlif» 
base of tho neck to the hcinlit rcciiiircfl. 

Armhnlc mensurruu iil: Take the iiifasurcriipnt of thf arnihoh- whore 
the arm joins llic body. The curve of tlic hne is ratlicr deep at the lower 
front, and is a |)ra(tically straitiht line in the back. 

Sleeve nu(us urcmenls: 

Length inside: Take this measurement aloti^ the inside of the arm 
from tlie little muscle where the arm joins the body to the bone in (he 
wrist . 

Length outside: From the point where the width of the back mea.sure 
ended, over the outside of the arm to the elbow. Then bend the elbow 
and take the measure down to the bone in the wrist. 

Size at elbow: Place the tape-measure around the elbow; bend the elbow, 
and take the measurement rather closely over the point of the elbow. 

Wrist size: Close the hand as thouf^h it were to slip through a small hole 
with the thumb held in the i)alm. Take the measure then, very closely 
over the knuckles and thumb. 

Skirl measurements: 

Waist: Take this measurement in the same way as for the waist. 

Hip: The first hij) measurement is generally taken (i inches below the 
waist-line. The second hip measurement is generally taken about 10 
inches below the waist-line, or over the fullest part of the thigh. These 
two measurements are ])arallel to each other and parallel to the floor. 
There is generally a difference of 4 to G inches between them. 

Length of front: From tlic waist-line to the floor, exactly at the center 
front. 

Length of side: From the waist-line to the floor, directly over the fullest 
part of the hip. The tapeline should fall at right angles to the waist-line. 

Length of back: From the waist-line to the floor, exactly at the center 
back. 

KINDS OF PATTERNS 

Patterns may l)e made in two waj's: b}' drafting and by 
modeling. Drafting is impracticable for the average housewife 
but invaluable for the professional worker, in that it develops 
a fine feeling for line. INIodeling is the ideal way in which to 
obtain a pattern, since the linos can be adapted to each figure; 
but ability to make patterns in this waj'- comes only with long 
experience in working with patterns and materials. The most 
practical pattern for the average worker is the commercial 
one. These patterns are being perfected from year to year. 
It is now possible to obtain a pattern of almost any size to fit 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING ' 341 

the normal figure. Generally only slight alterations are neces- 
sary. 

How to buy a commercial -pattern. 

Only patterns of standard makes which contain very explicit 
guide charts should be purchased. A waist pattern for a normal 
figure should be bought by the bust size. If the bust should 
be abnormally full, it is still necessary to buy the pattern by 
the bust size and then make the required adjustments. A skirt 
pattern should be purchased by the hip size, unless the waist 
is large in proportion to the hips, in which case it should be 
bought by the waist size. 

Before opening a pattern, the directions on the outside of the 
envelope should be read very carefully, seam allowances being 
noted and also the marks that are used to indicate the correct 
placing of the pattern. On opening the envelope, the pieces of 
the pattern should be looked over and compared with the 
guide chart. The pieces of the pattern to be used are then 
selected, any others returned to the envelope. 

How to test a commercial pattern. 

Using the individual measurements, the pattern may be tested 
for the size before placing it on the material. If it is necessary to 
make many changes, it is best to alter the pattern, cut it in cam- 
bric or unbleached muslin, and then try it on to see that all 
the lines are right before cutting it in the material for the 
garment. 

To test the pattern, the back and front should be pinned 
together along the line of the shoulder seams. 

Using the individual measurements, the neck-line is then 
tested. If it is large, it may b^ adjusted by raising the neck- 
line slightly. 

With the shoulder seam still pinned, the armhole is tested 
and made approximately the correct size by raising or lowering 
the waist under the arm and tapering the line to the normal arm- 
hole. If this does not correct the fault, the under-arm seam may 
be made deeper. 



342 



A MAM AL OF HOME MAKISd 



Simple (uljuslmruls in annvwrcial palUriis. 

TIk' accdnipiuiyiriK illustrations (Fi^s. (i:i 80) will iiiake clear 
the ordinary adjustments necessary in e()ininercial patterns. 
For the abnormal fij;ure, the garment must he modeled uu the 
fijj;ure after it is l)asted. 

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE AMOUNT OF MATERIAL 

No definite niles can be given for estimating the necessary 
amount of material for a garment because of the many infiuenc- 




FiG. 63. — Method of lengthening shirt-waist pattern. The front axjd back of 
the waist pattern are generally cut about 2 inches above the waist-hne for 
lengthening. For a figure that is very long from the shoulder to the lower 
curve of the armhole, the pattern may be lengthened by cutting it from 
the armhole to the center front. The shirt-waist sleeve may be length- 
ened in two places if necessary, depending on whether the arm is long 
from the shoulder to the elbow or from the elbow to the wrist. The sleeve 
pattern is generally cut about 2 inches above or below the elbow line. 

ing factors, such as fashion, finish, witlth, and design of the ma- 
terial. 

Pieces left from the cutting of the skirt and waist may gener- 
ally be used for cutting the collars, cuffs, or any small decora- 
tions. In buying expensive material, it is always permissible 
to take the pattern to the store ant! quickly place it on the 
material to get an estimate of the amount necessary. If com- 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



343 



mercial patterns are used, the amount of material necessary 
for the making of the garment is generally stated on the out- 
side of the envelope. This amount is often over-generous. 
Experience soon teaches one the minimum amount of material 
to buy for a garment. 

For a skirt. 

In estimating the amount of material necessary for a skirt, 
one must first decide on the width of the bottom of the skirt. 




Fig. 64. — Method of shortening a shirt-waist pattern. To 
shorten the pattern a fold may be taken about 2 
inches above the waist-line. To shorten the sleeve a 
fold may be taken about 2 inches above or below the 
line of the elbow depending on the proportion of the 
arm. 

In plain material, as many full lengths of the material will be 
required as the number of times the measure of the width of 
the cloth is contained in the measure of the width of the bottom 
of the skirt. This is a very generous allowance, because often 
in placing gores, especially on plain material with no up or 
down, they may be fitted in so that much less material need 
be used. It is often helpful in estimating the amount of ma- 
terial needed, to place the pattern on a table in the position 
for cutting material of a definite width. 

For a waist. 

In general, once the length of the front, measured from the 
point of the shoulder nearest the base of the neck, to the waist- 
line, and once the length of the back from the same point on 



;I14 .1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC 

the shoulder to the Wiiist-liiic, plus once oi- twice the outside 
leii^lli of tlie sleeve, will j^ive an idea of the amount of material 
i'('(iuircd. 

now TO I'LACK TIIK 1*A1TP:UN ON TMK MATKHIAL 

After the pattern has been altered and teste*!, or after it h;us 
been cut in inexpensive material and modeled to the figure, 




Fig. 65. — Method of cutting and oponinc a shirt-wai.st pat- 
torn to throw in fullness. This method of putting 
more fullness into a shirt-waist pattern also increases 
the length of the shoulder. The line of opening 
should extend through about the center of the shoulder. 
It is often necessary to increase the size of the arm- 
hole to make it correspondingly larger. The sleeve 
may be opened along the center. 

it is ready to be placed for cutting on the material. A few 
general rules are here given but there are many exceptions to 
them. 

1. Observe on the outside of the pattern envelope or on the guide chart 
contain(Hl in the envelope, the allowance for seam.s. In the case of the 
modeled pattern allow for seams, since the pattern has been cut apart 
exactly on the line of basting. In case the seam allowances have not been 
made, allow at least 3/S inch on material which does not fray, and more 
on material that frays badly. If tlie pattern has not been used before, 
it is a wise precaution to make an allowance of at least 1 inch on all fitting 
seams, such as the shoulder seam and the iinder-arm .seam of the waist, 
and the seams of the skirt which fall over the fullest part of the body. In 
making the extra allowance on the skirt .seams, begin at the waist-line and 
taper down to the original allowance at a point from 12 to 14 ii^rhps beJow 
the liii>-line. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



345 



2. Spread the material out as much as possible, and place the entire 
pattern on it, in order to determine the most economical way of cutting. 
This is always advisable for economy in cutting, and if it is necessary to 
piece the garment, the piecing may be planned to come in the least con- 
spicuous place. 

3. If the material is easily cut and does not slip when several thicknesses 
are cut at one time, it may be folded end to end and most of the pieces 
may be cut double. Care must 

always be taken not to cut two 
pieces for the same side. This 
difficulty may be obviated by 
placing the two right sides or 
the two wrong sides of the ma- 
terial together when cutting it. 
Then, when the two pieces of 
material are taken apart, one is 
for the right side and the other 
for the left. Folding the ma- 
terial together is not always the 
most economical scheme, for 
often the parts of the pattern 
may be fitted into irregular 
places if cut singly. 

4. Always place the largest 
pieces of the pattern first with 
the largest end of the pattern 
toward the cut end of the 
goods. This is economical be- 
cause it leaves the irregularly 
shaped pieces attached to the 




Fig. 



66. — Method of increasing or decreas- 
ing the bust measure of a shirt-waist 
pattern without increasing the length of 
the shoulder. The opening should ex- 
tend from the bottom of the waist in a 
.straight line to the deepest curve of the 
armhole. In the front it is often better 
to make two slashes than to spread one 
slash too far. This method of adjust- 
ment necessitates lowering the armhole 
and, if the second slash is made, slightly 
lowering the tip of the shoulder near 
the armhole. 



large piece of the goods. Often 

the smaller pieces of the pattern may then be fitted into these irregular 

pieces, which would be u.seless if detached. 

5. Observe carefully the nap or design of the material, placing the 
pattern so that the design runs in the same direction, on all the pieces. 
The nap generally runs down, but velvet and velveteen are exceptions to 
this rule. Different color effects are produced if the surface of the material 
does not reflect the light in the same way. 

6. A conspicuous design in the material, such as a plaid, must be identical 
on the two sides of the garment to prevent destroying the balance or in- 
troducing undesirable lines. Most important of all is keeping the grain of 
the material identical on both sides of the garment; otherwise the set of 
the garment will not be bi-symmetric. 

7. After the pattern has been placed in the most economical manner, 
pin it carefully, trying not to lift the material and the pattern from the 



34(i 



.1 U l\/ .1/. OF HOME MAKIXC 



table wlifii piimiiiK flicni. Do not n.s«» loo many i)ins; thoy not only take 
time to place, hut tlir-v often make noticeable holes in the material, es- 
pecially in silks. 

8. The actual position of the pattern on the ^oods depends lar^cely <in 
the i)attern. ^\'h<•n usin^ a commercial pattern, read the directions 
carefully, and then locate the indicatin^^ marks \vhi<'h show the lengthwise, 
the crosswise, and the fold of the material. Tiiese indicating marks sh<juld 
be followed carefully. 

For u.sinpj a moflolofl pattern, or a pattern without indicating 
marks, tlie following guides are offered: 





Fig. 67. — Method of dpcreasing the size of a shirt-waist 
pattern. Instead of cuttiiiK and spreading a pattern 
as in Fig. G.^, the size slujiild l)c decreased by making 
a fold in the pattern. 



1. Lines of a simple inittern generally placed on the straight lengthwise 
grain, or the lengthwise fold, of the material: 
In a waist: 

a. Center front 

b. Center back 
In a sleeve: 

Along the outer fokl when tli(> seam edges are brought together. Any 
sleeve after being basted should lie perfectly flat when folded. 
In a yoke or collar: 

a. Center front or center back of yoke or collar. The center back of a 
waist yoke or collar is generally cut on the lengthwise fokl, although often 
the lower front edges are cut on the straight grain, causing a bias seam in 
the center back. 

b. In a skirt yoke there may be all sorts of combinations in cutting. 
Probably the most successful way is to cut the material with the straight 
grain in the center back and the center front, giving a bias seam over the 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



347 



hip. Sagging may be disguised by making the yoke longer over the hip, 
if this gives a becoming hne. The bottom hne of a skirt yoke must be 
carefully considered with reference to the figure. Avoid allowing the 
lower edge to fall in a straight line around the fullest part of the body. 
Either an irregular yoke-line or the line joining a front or back panel is 
generally more becoming. 

In a cufT: 

The direction of the grain of the material in the cuff depends greatly 
on the design of the waist and of the material. For beauty of design, the 
cuff is generally cut with 
the lengthwise grain running 
with the depth of the cuff; 
for greater strength, how- 
ever, the cuff is cut with 
the lengthwise grain running 
from fastening to fastening. 

In a skirt: 

a. Center of front panel. 
Generally the front edge of 
each succeeding gore, in order 
that a straight edge may be 
sewed to a bias edge. This 
method will help to keep a 
skirt from sagging. In skirts 
of two gores the center of 
each gore is often placed on 
the straight lengthwise fold. 

b. If a rounding or tube- 
like effect is desired in a skirt 
of many gores, the center of 
each gore is placed on the 
straight lengthwise grain of 
the material. 




Fig. 68. — Method of lengthening a waist pat- 
tern for a very full bust or round should- 
ers. This method may be used on a shirt- 
waist, also, with slight alteration of the 
under-arm seam. 



When great strength is desired, the lengthwise grain of the material is 
always used. Skirt-bands, apron-bands, neck-bands, bands in all under- 
garments, and cuffs, are cut with their longest measurement on the length- 
wise grain of the material. 

2. Lines of a simple pattern placed on the straight crosswise grain of 
the material : 

In a shirt-waist: 

a. Width of the chest 

b. Width of the back 

c. Waist-line of the under-arm piece of a tight-fitting waist 
In a sleeve: 

Generally around the fullest part of the arm. 



348 



.1 MAMAl. OF HOME MAKl.XG 



In culTs: 

Depth of (lie cufT, wlicn the (Icsiiiii of (lie \v;iis( rc(|iiircs it. 

In yokes: 

Depth of the yoke, when the (lesijrn of the waist retpiires if. 

In skirts: 

Skirts an! seldom made with a eonst ruction hue falhn;; on the ('ros.swise 
prain of the material. For children's dre.s.ses ami for fancy silk dre.sst's, a 
skirt is occasionally niade on the crosswi.so urn'iu of the material. Chiffons, 
georRi'tto crfipe, net, or voile, on which there is a heaufiful selvuK'" f'<lK(*, 
is often draped on the crosswise prain, and thus the makinR of a hem finish, 
which is often cumbersome on very light-weight materials, is avoided. 



HOW TO MARK A flARMENT FOR BASTING 

After the pattern is placed, tlie seam allowance and other 
necessary points should be marked by one of the suggested 

methods. The points or 
lines generally marked are: 
(1) waist line; (2) seams 
along the edge of a modeled 
pattern, or along the indi- 
cated line on a commercial 
skirt or waist pattern; (3) 
neck-line; (4) armhole; (5) 
center front of waist and 
skirt; (G) center back of 
waist and skirt; (7) waist- 
line of skirt; (8) hip-line; 
(9) hem-line; (10) length- 
wise center of sleeve; (11) 
points indicating decora- 
tions, plaits, tucks, and 
gathers; and (12) notches. 

The notches for the join- 
ing of seams should lie indi- 
cated by a tack of thread 
or a chalk mark, never by 
cutting the notch, since this 
often ruins the final finish of a seam and does not allow for 
an increase in the size of the garment, if this is necessary. 




nR gar 
A, 



tlie 



Fig. 60. — Method used in model 
mont.'j over a flat pattern, 
paper pattern is pinned toeether af the 
shoulder seam and tlie linos marked 
showiuK the design to be followed; li, 
the resulting waist designed on the 
original pattern. 




Fig. 70. — Adjusting pattern to fit shoulders. A, Altera- 
tion necessary for very square shoulders. It is often 
necessary to fit in the shoulder seam at the base of 
the neck. This seam should slope very gradually 
into the old shoulder seam at the tip of the shoulder. 
This adjustment often necessitates the lowering of the 
neck-line in both the back and the front. B, Altera- 
tion necessary for very sloping shoulder. It is nec- 
essary to take in the shoulder seam slightly at the 
tip of the shoulder near the armhole. The new seam 
should slope very gradually to the old shoulder seam 
at the base of the neck. This alteration necessitates 
lowering the armhole. 




Fig. 71.^Simple adjustment of sleeve pattern. A, Method of increasing a 
sleeve pattern at the bottom. B, Method of adjusting a shirt-waist sleeve 
pattern to make a close-fitting sleeve at the bottom without changing the 
size at the top. A dart may be folded in the under side of the sleeve, taking 
out the excess fullness. This dart should extend from the bottom of the 
sleeve about to the elbow. The dart should fall nearer to the outside line of 
the sleeve than to the seam. C, Method of decreasing the fullness in a 
sleeve. To take fullness out of the top of a sleeve, fold a plait at the top 
along the center line, and let this plait decrease to nothing as it approaches 
the bottom of the sleeve. 



350 



A MAMAL or HOME MAKISd 



The tracing; wheel marks two thicknesses of material at once 
and is, th(M-ef()re, a y;real convenieiiee. It earmot l)e used on all 
kinds of material, iiowevei-. for on very thick material the per- 




FiG. 72. — Method of cutting collars for flat or rolling ef- 
fect. The more nearly the neck-line of a collar ap- 
proaches a circle, the flatter the collar will lie. The 
curve for a collar should always be straightened 
slightly to fit the back of the neck. 

forations do not show, and on very soft material the marldngs 
destroy the surface finish or threads. 

Tailor's chalk may be bought at the notion counter of any 
dry goods store. The chalk marks only one surface at a time, 
and the marks may become obliterated before time to use them. 
On some materials they are very difficult to erase. 

Tailor's basting is a very satisfactory way of marking mate- 
rials. It requires more time than the other methods, but is 
more lasting and may be done through two thicknesses. A 




Fig. 73. — ^Changing length or width of skirt pattern. A, Method of lengthening. 
The pattern may be cut at a point about opposite the knee, and spread 
as desired. B, Method of shortening. The tuck may be taken in a pattern 
about opposite the knee. If the pattern is simply folded up at the bottom 
to shorten it, a great deal of fullness is removed. C, Method of increasing 
the width of a skirt pattern. 




Fig 



74. — Increasing waist or hip size of a skirt pattern. A, Method of in- 
creasing the size of the waist and the hips of a gored skirt pattern. B, 
Method of increasing the size of the waist without increasing the size of 
the hips. C, Method of increasing the size of the hips without increasing 
the waist size. 



:iry'2 



.1 M.WI AL OF iioMr: MAKixa 



lt)ii^ double IIuc-kI is lakcii li» iii;ikc lliis lackiiiji;. AIoiik <Ih> lino 
wliicli is lo !)(• marked, even liastiu^ stitches should he taken, 
li'a\iii^ ;i ^eiieioijs loop of thread between each stitch. The 
l)attern should be folded back when one is niarkiiifi; lines in- 
dicated by perforations in the pattern. The two e<ifr(.s of the 
niateri.al sliould b(! .se[)arate(l and the thicads cut halfway he- 

tween lh(! eddies. 'J'his leaves 
a marking line of stitches and 
end.s aloiiji^ both edges of the 
material. 

Tailor's tacks are made in 
nuich the same way as tailor's 
basting. At a point where a 
mark is desired, a stitch about 
3^4 inch long is taken leaving 
an end of thread. Over this 
.stitch another stitch should be 
taken leaving a loop of thread. 
The thread is then cut from 
the material leaving another 
end. The two pieces of. ma- 
terial are separated, and the 
joining threads cut, leaving a 
mark on each piece. 

HOW TO CUT A GARMENT 

T. „,,,,. , . , In using a standard com- 

ru;. 7.}. — Method of decreasing the . , _ i • i .t 

.size of the hip.s of a gored skirt merciul pattern on which the 

pattern without decreasing the size scam allowance is made, the 

of the waist. material should be cut close to 

the edge of the pattern. In using a modeled pattern, the mater- 
ial may be cut at the correct distance from the seam markings, 
a tapeline or cardboard measure being u.sed to indicate the 
distance until the eye becomes trained. If tailor tacking has 
been used, the two pieces of the pattern should be pulled apart, 
and the threads cut, care l)eing taken not to shake the parts of 
the garment and thus lose the mai'king thi-eads. As soon as the 




THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



353 



various parts are cut, they 
are folded carefully to prevent 
stretching the very bias edges. 
When working on material that 
stretches badly, it is often a 
good plan to baste a piece of 
selvage or tape along the more 
bias edges, until that part is 
permanently sewed. This is 
true of the neck-line and arm- 
hole of the waist, and also of 
the center back and the waist- 
line of the skirt. 

HOW TO BASTE A SIMPLE 
GARMENT 

Too much basting is almost 
worse than too little. It not 
only pulls the material and 
makes it unyielding, but it is 
very time-consuming. If pins 
are skillfully placed, much of 
the tiresome basting may be 
omitted. 

Holding the material with 
seam-marking on seam-mark- 
ing, the pins should be placed 
at right angles to the line to be 
made by the stitching. If pins 
are so placed, the basting thread 
will not tangle around them, 
and they are easily removed if the seam is to be stitched 
on the machine without being basted. 




Fig. 76. — Method of adjusting a skirt 
pattern for a person who has a 
prominent abdomen or hips. For 
the former, the adjustment is made 
on the gores toward the front; for 
the latter, on the gores toward the 
back. A small tuck of not more 
than ]4: inch is taken at the back 
of the gore a few inches below the 
hip-line and allowed to run to 
nothing at the front of the gore. 
It is necessary to straighten the 
back edge of the gore after mak- 
ing this adjustment. As this is 
somewhat difficult, it is better if 
made on the figure. 



General rules for basting. 

1. In basting garments of any size, keep the work on a table or a lap- 
board as much as possible. For very long seams, such as are in a" skirt, the 



354 



.1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKlXd 



l.iisl.tl (-(lues will !)(• imicli Hatter if tlu-y arc placid iMrfcctly flat on a 
lalilc ami kept so while iiiiiiK iKLsted. 

•J. Wlieii l)astiiin two ednes tonether, the worker should always keep 
tlie inon> liias edne towards her. 

3. When haslinn u gathered part to a strainht ed^e, the worker should 
always hold the gathered |)art towards her. If an esixrially nood line on 
the strai^;ht edge is desired, the work may be held with the straight piece 
toward one, as is often done when basting in a slwve. 

4. In hasting l)ias edges, such as the edge of a gore, start the ba-sting 
opposite the widest end of the gore, if possible. In this way, the hand will 
not ravel or push off the warp threads. 

To basic a shirt-waist or other simple waist. 

1. Baste and stitch all flat decorations, such as tucks, plaits, and set-in 
laee, before basting the seams. 

2. Pin the scams before basting them, bringing together the correspond- 

ing points, such as the waist- 
lines and armholes- of each. 
Whether the waist is basted with 
the seams on the right or wrong 
side depends on the kind of fin- 
ished seam to be used. In the 
case of a tight-fitting waist, the 
seams are basted on the wrong 
side in order that the lines in 
the waist may be carefully ob- 
served when the garment is tried 
on. 

3. In basting together parts 
of a simple waist, begin with the 
undcr-arm seam. Pin the parts 
together at the waist-line, keep 
the tracing or tailor tacking of 

T^ -- 4 .. *i 1 f 1-. ♦■• „ the front and the back together. 

Fig. 77. — Another method of adjustmR a , • , ^ i i i 

gored skirt pattern for a figure with and pin the seam to the armhole 
prominent abdomen. and down to the bottom of the 

l)(>plum. Baste the seam from 
the waist-line up to the armhole and from the waist-line down to the bottom 
of the peplum, using an even basting stitch. 

If a yoke is to be u.sed, read the directions under section 4. Baste the 
shoulder seams first and spread the garment out perfectly flat on the table. 
Pin the yoke into place, and baste it. Then baste the under-arm seam as 
already directed. 

For a tight-fitting waist, pin the side-front seam from the waist-line up 
tow:ird the ])oint of the bust, and from the shoulder seam down toward 




THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



355 



the same point. This brings a sUght fullness at the correct place over the 
fullest part of the bust. Divide this fullness through a space of about 
2 inches. Adjust the shoulder seams last in this type of waist. 

4. Pin the shoulder seams together, first matching the markings of the 
neck-line and then the armhole. Baste the seams, holding the back of the 
waist toward you. It is often necessary to stretch the front slightly to fit 




Fig. 78. — Method of adding material to a gored skirt 
pattern to form a tuck at the seam. 

the back. This is desirable, since the waist will then naturally spring down 
to fit the curve of the shoulder. 

To haste sleeves. 

For a shirt-waist sleeve, make the placket and apply it before basting 
the sleeve. The placket is generally placed about 1 inch back of the center 
fold, made by folding the sleeve along the seam. After the placket has 
been placed and stitched, the seam of the sleeve is basted and stitched, 
and the cuff is sewed on. In adjusting the gathers at the bottom of the 
sleeve, leave the sleeve without gathers for a space of about 1 inch on each 
side of the seam. Gather the sleeve to fit the cuff. 

For a simple cuff or a French cuff, place the two right sides of the cuff 



350 



.1 M.WCAL OF linME M.XKISd 



toni'tlur, Miiil stitch the culT across tlic two oiids and the Ijottom. Then 
inittT tlic corners to remove the excess material. Turn the culT right side 
out, crease it very sharply around the edge, and biuste it perfectly flat. 
Acrn.ss the top turn in ' j inch toward the wrong si<le along l)oth the right 
and the wrong side of the culT, and l)a,ste down this allowance. I-'old the 
cufT from end to end, and locale the center. One inch toward (he end of 
the culT which is to he sewed to the hack of the sleeve, place the seam of 




Fig. 79. — Designing narrow or full circular .skirt iiattcrn. A, Method of placing 
a six-gore pattern for a slightly circular skirt with gathers at the waist-line. 
In cutting a skirt of this kind, a scam may he placed in the center front, 
center back, or over the hips, as desired. B, Method of placing a six-gore 
pattern to make a circular skirt full at the bottom and fitting smoothly 
at the waist-line and hii>s. The gores may be spread apart and uneven 
amounts of fullness thus thrown in. 

the sleeve. Insert the gathered sleeve between the upper edges of (he cuff, 
pinning the indicated points together. Pin the gathers toward the front 
and the back of the cufT, adjusting them as suggested, and allowing the 
I)lacket of the sleeve to remain perfectly smooth. Baste the right side of 
tlie cufT to the sleeve. Turn the sleeve to the wrong side, and baste the 
inner side of the cufT in place 1/lG inch above the outside basting in order 
that the inside will be caught by (he .s(itching from the right side. Stitch 
entirely around the culT 1/1(» inch from the edge. Stitch again across the 
top 34 incli below th(> first row of stitching. 

For a close-fitting sleeve finished with a facing, baste the sleeve and (ry 
it on before stitching and finishing the bottom. 

For a shirt sleeve, onesimilarto thesleeveof a man's shirt without gathers 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



357 



at the top, baste the sleeve into the waist before either the seam of the 
sleeve or the under-arm seam of the waist is joined. In this case the 
placket may be applied before the sleeve is set in, but the cuff cannot be 
placed. 

To baste in a shirt-waist or a coat sleeve. 

The following scheme of locating the sleeve proves satisfactory for 
almost any type of sleeve. This is of course only a general rule, since all 
sleeves must finally be adjusted to the person if they are to be truly artistic. 





Fig. 80. — Method of cutting a pattern for a circular flounce. Fit together the 
gores of a six-gore skirt on top of a paper; trace around the lower edge of 
the skirt, the center front, the center back, and across the skirt where the 
flounce is to be attached; remove the pattern and cut along the tracing; 
from the bottom slash the flounce to within ^2 inch of the top of the flounce, 
and spread it apart as desired. This flounce is very circular unless it is 
divided into sections, and if this is done, they should be so placed that a 
straight edge falls on a bias edge as in a skirt. 

1. Measure 1 inch back of the shoulder seam at the armhole. Using 
this as the dividing point, fold the armhole in half. The point opposite 
this first point is the point at which to place the seam of the sleeve. 

2. Pin the seam of the sleeve in place. 

• 3. Bring the shoulder seam of the waist down to the under-arm seam 
of the waist, and fold the armhole flat. The two points thus located on 
the sides of the armhole are the points between which the gathers of the 
sleeve should be adjusted. 

4. Pin the sleeve in place, working from the seam towards each of the 
points located. Then pin the remainder of the sleeve, holding the fullness 
easily between these two points. If there is too much fullness to pin in 



358 A M.WCAL OF HOME MAKfXa 

l>lac<', patlicr it with one tlinail on the tracinn, and a mcoikI thread slinhlly 
l)cK)\v, or toward the culT of the sleeve. 

f). Adjust the gathers to fit the ariiihole, making the center of tlie sleeve 
fall in a perfectly straight line from the highest point of the shoulder. 
If the pitliers are allowed to fall forward rather than backward, a slight <aip 
i>; formed in the front of the sleeve to fit over the point of the shoulder. 

li. Tin anti haste the entire sleeve in phice. 

To baste a collar or other decorations. 

Haste all parts of the waist as far as possible, in order that they may he 
ready to try on after this first hasting, and thus avoid repeated fittings. 

To baste a skirt. 

Pin the hip-lines, waist-lines, and hem-lines of the gores together. Place 
as many pins as necessary between these points. If it is necessary to haste 
the skirt before trying it on, observe the general rules (page 3o.'i). If the 
skirt is simple, it may be turned at this time on the line of the hem, and 
the hem may he basted into place. This will give a better feeling when the 
skirt is first tried on. At the j)lacket extend the hasting of the seam on each 
side, in order that a good line for the fitting may be observed. The placket 
is generally about 12 inch(\s deep. 

If a tuck opening is desired or a seam stitched on the outside, the gore 
edge or center front of the skirt is generally turned toward the wrong side 
on the line of marking, hasted if necessary, anil then j)re.s.sed. The gore 
to which this edge is to he sewed is then placed jierfectly flat on the table 
and the pressed edge of the first gore i)laced just to the line of marking on 
the second gore. The waist-line, the hip-lines, and the hem-lines of the 
gores must be made to coincide. Pin the gores carefully in place, and baste 
them. 

In basting darts in a skirt, begin at the point of the dart and work 
toward the waist. Care must he taken to keep both sides of the dart 
smooth. When oliserved on the right side, the dart should form a line at 
right angles to the waist-line or a line with a slightly outward curve like 
the curve of the body. Darts should not he cut open until after the fitting. 

KINDS OF SEAMS FOlt GARMENTS 

Many kinds of .scams ai'e possible in the various types of fjar* 
meats, some practical and some decorative as well. In this 
short discussion of the processes in dressmaking it will be im- 
po.ssible to explain how each kind of seam is made. In ortler 
to recall the different types of seams the following outline is 
made. The kind of s(>am to l)e usetl in making a garment should 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



359 



be decided before the garment is basted together, in order to 
avoid unnecessary basting. 

For undenoear and plain dresses: Plain seam; French seam; stitched fell; 
hemmed fell; overhand fell. 

For lingerie dresses and ivaisls: French seam; hemmed fell; seam made 
with entre-deux; standing fell; rolled seam. 

For tailored wool or silk garments: French seam; stitched fell; welt seam; 
double-stitched welt; cord seam; plain seam; slot seam; strapped seam; 
lapped seam. 

For silk and fine wool dresses: Plain seam; plain seam bound; plain seam 
made, edges turned to wrong side and sewed together with running stitch; 
piquot 



HOW TO MAKE A FOUNDATION BELT 

For a dress or a skirt with a raised waist-Hne, a ribbed belting 
or a cambric belting stiffened with stays of featherbone should 






Fig. 81. 



-Method of making a foundation belt for a skirt or a dress, 
end finishes are shown. 



Two 



be used. This belting should be as wide as the distance above 
the waist-line at which the line of the skirt is desired to appear. 
If the belt is wide, it may be fitted with darts (Fig. 81). The 
darts may extend from one edge of the belting to the other, 
the greater depth, about 3^ inch, being in the center of the belt- 
ing, if one wishes the belt to extend slightly below the waist- 
line. Or the dart may be taken deep at the top and allowed to 
taper to nothing at the bottom, if the entire belt is to drop below 
the waist-line. These darts should be on the side of the belt 
placed next to the body. The ends of the belting are then 
turned in and a sufficient number of hooks and eyes sewed on to 



'M){) A MAMAL OF lloMK MAK/XC 

hold the belt in ^ood |)nsiti(»ii. 'I'lic lionUs slioiild he scwod to 
tin- li^ht-liiiiid end of llic Itclt and on the uron^i; side, the bill 
of the hook bcinjj; set '/n. '"'1' back from the end of th(* bolting. 
The oycs sliould extend beyond tlic edne of the belling ut the 
left-lumd end the same di.stance tliat the liooks are slippe<l 
back. 'I'he two ends of the l)elt will exactly meet when it is 
hooked. The unfinished ends of the beltinR and the stitchinj; 
holdinjr the hook.s and eyes in place is covered with a piece of 
taffeta seam-binding (Fiff. 81); or if there is any excess material 
on each end it may be folded back ji inch on the outside; 
then the folded ed<j;e should be broufz;ht up under the bill of the 
hook on one end and over the loop of the eyes on the other end 
and hemmed into place. This last method of finishing the belt 
is verj^ substantial but makes a much thicker finish. The center 
front, the center back, and the sides of the belt should then be 
marked with colored thread in order to facilitate adjusting the 
garment on the figure. 

FITTING GARMENTS (PLATES XII AND XIII) 

Two fittings for a simple garment, such as a house-dress, a 
plain shirt-waist, or a skirt, should be sufficient, if the garment 
has been properly prepared and the fitting is carefully done. 
Generally it is not necessary to fit more than the right side of a 
simple garment unless there is a great difference between the 
right and left sides of the figure. Too nuich fitting dcstroj's the 
crisp freshness of new material. 

To be properly prepared for the first fitting, a dress should 
have the seams basted, the sleeves basted into place, and the 
following markings or bastings, placed: 

On the skirt: (1) Placket; (2) hem-line of the skirt, if possible; (3) center 
front; (4) center back; (5) hip-line, G inches below tlie waist-line; (G) waist- 
line, either raised or normal. 

On the belt: (1) Center front; (2) center back. 

On the waist: (1) Center front; (2) center back; (3) neck-line; (4) arm- 
hole line, if the sleeve is not basted in; (5) waist-line; (6) two gathering 
threads at the waist-line, one J^ incli below the other. 

On the .sleeve: (1) Finished lengtli; (2) two gathering threads in the 
bottom of the sleeve, one on the tracing and one '4 inch l)elow the tracing; 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 361 

and gathering threads should also appear in the top of the sleeve between 
the indicated places; (3) line of finishing at the arm-hole of the waist; 
(4) the point of the elbow in a tight-fitting sleeve. 

With these marks it should be very easy to adjust the waist 
and the skirt to the figure. 

Directions for fitting a shirt-waist or a house-dress. 

Place the fitted or made belt on the figure, being sure that the center 
back is at the center back of the figure. 

Settle the waist well to the figure, and pin it at the center front exactly 
on the indicating lines. 

Turn the shoulder and under-arm seams toward the front. 

Make a general survey of the waist before proceeding further. 

If the shoulders of the figure are very square or very sloping, alterations 
will probably be necessary (Fig. 70). If the shoulders are very square, 
the waist is likely to be lifted too much at the point of the shoulder, causing 
wrinkles across the waist. To correct this defect, take the shoulder seam 
deeper near the neck (Fig. 70), and cut away the surplus material. This 
may make the neck too small. If. so, cut the neck-hne larger by slashing 
it slightly until the correct size is obtained. 

If the shoulders are very sloping, the waist drops at the end of the 
shoulder causing wrinkles from the neck to the armhole. To correct this 
defect, take up the shoulder seam at the point of the shoulder (Fig. 70). 
Then enlarge the armhole by cutting away the material under the arm. 
Taper it both in the front and back to the normal armhole. The shoulder 
seam should be about 1 inch back of the highest point of the shoulder. If 
this seam is too far back, it will narrow the back of the waist; if too far 
forward, it will give the shoulders a rounded appearance. A yoke-line 
should drop well forward from the normal shoulder-line. This adjustment 
depends entirely on the figure fitted. 

In general, the collar-line should run in a good curve from the bone at 
the base of the neck in the back to above the two small bones at the front 
of the neck. Keep the neck-line close to the neck and rather high at the 
side just under the ear, unless the neck is very short, in which case, the 
side of the neck-line may be lowered slightly to give more length. 

If the neck-line is too large, take up the shoulder seam. The fullness 
must never be taken out in the center front by lapping. This would cause 
the grain of the material to slope downward toward the center front. 
In a tight-fitting lining a dart is sometimes taken in the center front, to 
make the neck-line smaller and to take out extra fullness over the chest. 
Taking up the shoulder seams may necessitate lowering the armhole. 

The under-arm seam should appear to be a continuation of the shoulder 
seam and should fall from the center under-arm straight down to the waist- 
hne. If it is desired to narrow the appearance of the back width at the 



;iG2 .1 MA \ I \L nr lloMH \l.\K/\(; 

\v;iisl-lim', I lie iiii(l(r-:iriii scam iiiav In- .slanted shrill ly toward tlic 
hack. 

Afljust tlic fiilhicss around the waist-liiie next. I'in the wai.st to a stif- 
fincd l)clt if it i.s to he a |)art of ji (ln*.s.s, or to a nonwlastic \ii]n\ if it is to 
l>c a sci)aiatc Karnieiit. In cither r-iusc the adju.stinjj is about the Siinie. 
I'in the ccnicr l)ack of the waist to the center hack of tlic hcltinn at either 
I lie normal waist-line or the raised waist-line, deix'tidinn on whether a 
skirt is to he made or not. Locate the under-ann seams, and pin them to 
the hcltinp;. Pin the center front of the waist to the center front of the 
hclt. Draw the ^athcrinn threails ti^ht, and adjust the fullness. To most 
lifiurcs a slight hlousiiiff is hccominj;;. As far as jKJSsihle, keep the lines 
made hy the fjathcring at right angles to the waist-line. This gives the 
figure a straight appearance. 

If the waist is too tight over the l)ust, it may he made slightly larger hy 
letting out the undcr-arm scam; or in case the waist is heing fitted in 
practice material, fullness at the l)ust may he allowed as shown in Figs. 
Go and 66. 

The armhole lino i.s one of the most impf)rtant lines in the waist. From 
the point of the shoulder, the line .should drop almost straight to the front 
muscle of the arm. The line then curves to fit the underarm as closely as is 
comfortable and forms a nearly straight line along the armhole at the back. 

The greater amount of fullness in the sleeve should fall over the shoulder 
hone which in most cases is from ^4 to iy> inches in front of the shoulder 
seam. The straight lengthwise grain of the material should fall straight 
down from the highest i)oint of the shoulder. If the sleeve is too large or 
too small, it should be changed at the seam. Observe the length of the 
sleeve, and try on the cuff. If the sleeve puffs slightly at the hack even 
when the elbow is Ijent, take the seam in the sleeve deeper, l)Ut not the seam 
of the waist. 

If a collar-band is to be used, it should be tried on at this time. 

A shirt-waist should fit loosely hut smoothly. Overfitting takes away 
from the informal grace and style of the waist. After a plain sliirt-waist 
has been satisfactorily adjusted, an excellent plan is to rip it a|)art and 
either cut a new pattern or correct the old one from it. If this is done, 
much difficult fitting may be avoided at another time. 

After the waist has been fitted and before the sleeve has been removed, 
mark both the sleeve and the waist so that they will go together again 
without difficulty. Mark on the belt the points at which the under-arm 
seams fall, and also the line of the waist. 

Ke-haste the sleeve, finish the waist as nearly as possil)le at the Ijottom, 
and again baste it into the waist. Baste the collar-band into place, or if 
a fancy collar is to 1)0 used, baste it together, and try it on at the next 
fitting. Pin the waist again to the foundation belt. 

Place the waist on the figure, and make any tinid adjustments. 

Try the skirt on at this time. Place it on the figure right side out, and 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 363 

adjust it to the figure. Pin the center front of the skirt to the center front 
of the belting, and the center back of the skirt to the center back of the 
belting. The lines of all darts and gores may be more easily observed if 
the skirt is right side out, although the fitting is made more difRcult. 
Pin up the skirt exactly on the indicated lines of the placket. Only the 
right side of the skirt need be fitted, but the whole skirt should be pinned 
to the foundation belt. 

After adjusting the skirt to the foundation belt, take a general survey 
of the skirt, noting the lines of the gores. The skirt should fit smoothly 
from the waist-line to the hip-line, and below the hip it should fall in 
straight lines. All dart and seam lines should be at right angles to the 
line of the waist. The skirt should not stand out from the figure in one 
place more than in another. If this should be the case, turn to the illus- 
trations of pattern adjusting (Figs. 74-77), and alter the skirt as there 
suggested. 

The hip-line and the line at the bottom of the skirt should be parallel 
to each other and to the floor. In the case of a figure with prominent hips, 
the skirt may stand out at the sides. This may often be remedied by 
dropping the skirt slightly from the waist-line over the hip. 

Simple fitting may be done by increasing or decreasing the depth of the 
seams; however, care must be taken to keep all lines of folds, placket, seams, 
or darts at right angles to the waist-line. 

After the skirt has been fitted satisfactorily, always straighten both the 
hip-line and the finishing line at the bottom of the skirt. 

Observe the waist-line very carefully to see that the waist blouses suffi- 
ciently for the arms to be raised easily, and also that the line made by 
the joining of the waist and the skirt is becoming. The waist-line should 
either be parallel to the floor or dip slightly in front. 

Remove the garment from the figure, and mark all alterations and lines 
necessary for the second adjustment of the garment. Finish the waist 
except perhaps the final adjustment of some decoration, and fasten it to 
the foundation belt. Rebaste the skirt and finish the placket, and again 
baste it to the foundation belt. 

Try on the garment for the final fitting. Adjust any decoration, such 
as collar, belt, or pockets. Note all lines, and turn the garment at the 
bottom. Finish the garment, without further fitting. 

HOW TO MAKE A SKIRT EVEN AT THE BOTTOM 

The following ways of making a skirt even at the bottom are 
suggested : 

1. Put the skirt on, and place a yardstick perpendicular to the floor 
and close to the body. Mark the skirt at the top of the yardstick. Turn 
around, keeping the yardstick at the same distance from the body, and 
mark points around the skirt at the top of the yardstick. This gives a 



;>(i4 .1 .l/.l.\7 .1/. OF HOME MAKISa 

liiii' |):ir;illtl to llic lloor. Spn-jid the skirt out on ;i t;ili|c, :iti<l iiwasun* 
(low II ;il rij^lil Millies to lliis line tin- corrcft niimlxT of iiiclK-s to make 
I lie skirt tlir desired Iciifjtii. 

2. Cliidk tlif end of a yardstick or rider. Open tlie Iowit drawrT of a 
ilrcsscr far ciioiiuli to hold tlic stick, and keep the stirk as nearly parallel 
to tlie floor as possible. Walk up to the end of th<' stick, and turn slowly 
letting the chalked end of the stick mark thi- skirt. Spread the skirt on a 
talile, and measure down from this chalked line the correct imniher of 
niches to make the skirt the desired lenpth. 

HOW TO KEEP BIAS SE,\M.S FROM SAGOrXG 

After a .skirt has been ba.stcd and .stitched, it i.s well to allow it 
to hang for a number -of days in order to sag as much as it will. 
It may then be hemmed, and it will stay even for some time. 
If seams are stayetl with a vory firm piece of material, such as 
tape or selvage, they may creep up, or the bias material at 
each side of the scam nui}' .sag tlown. Better than to use a 
straight edge, is to use a binding on a different bias from that 
of the seam. This will keep the seam from sagging, but it will 
be sufficiently elastic to make a graceful .seam. 

SUGGESTIVE FINISHES TO BE USED BY THE HOME WORKER 

Cuffs and collars. 

The material in the cuffs and the collar should be the same, 
and both the cuffs and the collar should have the same general 
shape. For example, if the corners are roimded on the collar 
the .same type of corner should appear on the cuffs. The l)est 
shape for the opening of the collar and the best outline depend 
entirely on the figure and the shape of the face. 

The cuffs and collar may be made of a texture contrasting 
with that of the dress but of a color harmonizing with it. A 
garment is always more interesting if some contrast is intro- 
duced. The possible combinations of textures and colors with 
a gown depend to a great extent on the personality of the wearer. 
For example, one person may look well in white linen collars 
and cuffs on a blue serge dress, while another. person who may 
be less tailored in appearance or whose complexion may be less 
clear, finds it necessary to wear georgette collars and cuffs 
to j)revent the transition frcjni the dress fo the collar to the com- 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 365 

plexion from being too pronounced. Therefoi-e, the smallest 
part of decoration must be studied in relation to the person who 
is to wear the garment. 

Some suggestive combinations of materials are as follows: 

To he used ivith wool: 

1. Georgette crepe will keep the gown all in a suede-like texture if 
combined with a dull material such as serge. It is a most becoming texture, 
because the light of its surface is broken up, and it is thin enough to allow 
the color of a dark gown to be seen through it, thus producing a gradual 
transition from the gown to the complexion. This is true of any of the 
thin materials. 

2. Chiffon is more appropriate than Georgette crepe, for formal ma- 
terials such as broadcloth; it is more formal but not so universally 
becoming. 

3. Wash satin. The texture of wash satin causes it to reflect the light 
in large masses, and in itself it is very attractive. Since it is of a rather 
heavy texture, it makes a harsh contrast between the dress, the collar, 
and the complexion. It should be studied carefully with the gown and 
the person who is to wear it, before being chosen. 

4. Organdie or swiss is a little more crisp than Georgette crepe and not 
so universally becoming. It gives a very fresh appearance to almost any 
wool gown excepting those made of the more formal materials, such as 
broadcloth. 

5. Voile or handkerchief linen. 

6. Linen or pique. Either linen or pique is very becoming to some 
persons but makes so harsh a contrast with the complexion that it is not 
becoming to all. 

7. Novelty materials such as cretonne and suede, should be studied 
carefully before being combined with the average dress. 

8. Broadcloth and serge. Woolen materials such as broadcloth and 
serge make interesting collars but add to the warmth of the garment. 

To he used vnth silks: 

1. Georgette crfipe. 2. Chiffon. 3. Panne velvet. 4. Bolting cloth. 
5. Organdie. 6. Net. 

To he used ivith cottons and linens: 

1. Linen. 2. Pique. 3. Poplin. 4. Voile. 5. Plain gingham or chambray, 
with plaid material. 

Suggestive edge finishes for cuffs and collars: 

1. Machine hemstitching or piquot. 2. Bias binding. 3. Hem turned 
to right side and held in place by a simple embroidery stitch (Fig. 82). 
4. Hand scalloping. 5. Scalloped hem. 6. Scalloped facing. 7. Rolled 
hem made with colored threads. 8. Very small crocheted edge. 9. Footing. 



•M\{\ 



.1 M.w I M. or no Mr: u.iavw; 



10. Hcrmiuiii fanittiiin. 1 1. lltiiistitcliiiin. 12. Wide faciiiii nf conf ntstinR 
material. 13. Decorative iiia<'hiiie stiteliiiin. 

W(i ist-linc ft n i'sIk s. 

The ff)ll()\vinf:; wai.st-liiK* finishes may bo usoci for flic fop of 
the skirt when it is scucfl over the waist on fhc foundation belt. 



-JOCXJOCX Xi^X X X 



"^T^^r"^^ 



J= J=J =J=J=J= ^ J-J 



-~'-t£.-r z i-£r^^ <=>^XD<3>^X! 



^^jT^T*;^-^-^ jjsj=j=j5.l?J^.J=jffji) 



±iIl- 



1 -i iLll,;;,.,:.:,.. 



JJ, I 



Fig. 82. — C(jinhination.s of .simple embroidery stitches to 
be used in decorating collars, cutTs, aprons, and dresses. 

1. The skirt may bo turned H inch to the wrontr side and hasted along 
the waist-line. It is then stitched 1/S inch below tlie edge. 

2. If an outside belt is to be used with the dre.ss, the unfinished edge of 
the skirt may be jihiced on the waist-line and stitched into place. Taffeta 
seam-binding is then stitched over tlie unfinislied edges. 



. THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 367 

3. The skirt may be finished with an inserted cord or piping of the same 
or a contrasting texture. In using piping or cord finishes, care must be 
taken not to create an unbecoming fine or introduce too many definite Unes. 
Color and texture must be considered. 

Finishes for the bottom of the skirt. 

The following finishes may be used for the bottom of skirts, 
overskirts, or flounces : 

1. Hem. The skirt may be hemmed by hand or on the machine. In 
wool or silk it is generally preferable to have the hem slip-stitched into 
place. 

2. Hem with one turning. The raw edge of the material may be catch- 
stitched into place and covered with Prussian binding. Any surplus full- 
ness may be shrunken out, gathered, or placed in darts which must fall 
at right angles to the line of stitching. This kind of hem is often used in 
material which does not fray easily. 

3. Fancy hem. The hem may be turned to the right side and finished 
with a cord or piping; it may be held in place by decorative machine 
stitching; or it may be scalloped. 

4. Facing or false hem. 

5. Bindings of various widths. 

6. Macliine hemstitching. 

7. Piping or cording. 

Simple designs in embroidery. 

Simple designs is embroidery suitable for finishing cuffs and 
collars, holding hems in place, and decorating belts and pockets 
afe shown in Fig. 82. 

Set-in pocket. 

The set-in pocket, suitable for shirt-waists, sport skirts, 
and middy blouses, is shown in Fig. 83. 

Bound buttonholes. 

Bound buttonholes also have their decorative value and are 
shown in Fig. 84. 

Arrows. 

If it is desired to use arrows, the making may be seen from 
Fig. 85. 



31)8 



.t .1/1 \l AL or HOME MAKISC 




Ficj. 83. — Set-in pocket. The landing piece must be made twice as long as the 
desired depth of the pocket, i)his the amount of material to be used in the 
Ijinding. This may tje of a contrasting color or material, or a small piece 
of color, enough to hind the cut, may be placed between the garment and 
the pocket lining, stitched into place, and later fastened to the lining. 
A, Marking the garment for the pocket. B, Marking, basting, and stitch- 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 369 

SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF DRESSES AND WAISTS 

For house-dresses: Gingham, chambray, linen, poplin, crepe. 

For business or street dresses: Serge, poplin, gabardine, fine twilled ma- 
terial, dull satin. 

For formal dresses: Broadcloth, velvet, crepe de chine, satin, messaline, 
taffeta, charmeuse, chiffon, georgette crepe, crepe meteor. 

For aflernoon dresses: Batiste, swiss, voile, dimity, novelty material, 
linen, crepe de chine, pussy wUlow taffeta, crepe meteor, challis, nun's 
veiling, wool crepe, henrietta. 

For shirt-waists: Tub silk, heavy china silk, habutai, madras, flannel, 
linen. 

For fancy waists: Handkerchief linen, voile, batiste, georgette crepe, 
soft taffeta, chiffon. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR ECONOMY IN DRESS 

It will be found economical to select one color for a season 
and choose garments that will harmonize. A definite portion 
of the income should be set aside for clothing and this amount 
should not be exceeded. 

It is economy to buy the very best possible material. Fewer 
clothes may be bought if necessary, but the material and texture 
should be good. Well-made garments that are bought are 
expensive; garments of equal quality can be made at home 
more cheaply, if a woman is skillful and if her time is not more 
valuable spent in some other way. 

MAKING SIMPLE UNDERGARMENTS (jULIA GLEASOn) 

When making or buying undergarments, the points to con- 
sider are simplicity and durability of materials and design, 

ing the lining into place. The right side of the lining is placed to the right 
side of the garment, then basted and stitched. It is often better to taper 
the corners in stitching, if the material is at all heavy. C, Right side of 
garment. The lining is pulled through to the wrong side and adjusted as 
in the bound buttonhole. The upper and lower edges of the pocket should 
be basted to hold the material in place. ■ D, The pocket is stitched on the 
machine close to the edge of the garment along the two ends and across 
the lower side. E, The lower end of the pocket is brought to the upper end 
on the wrong side of the garment and the two sides and ends stitched 
together and overcasted. F, The garment is turned to the right side, and 
the top of the pocket stitched across to correspond with the other stitching. 
Arrows may be used at the ends of the pockets to cover any fulling of the 
cloth. 



c 






I 1 

= ^ 



Fig. 84. — Method of making a bound 
buttonhole, whieh may be used 
also for decoration. A, Marking 
the line for the buttonhole. B, 
Basting the binding directly over 
the mark for the hole. The right 
side of the binding is phiced to the 
right side of the material. This 
binding may be cut on the bias 
or straight, about 1 inch longer 
than the hole and about 1 inch 
wide. C, Stitching firmly around 
the mark for the hole, aliout 1 8 
inch above and l)elow the line of 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 371 

with special reference to their laundering qualities. Cheap 
trimming is not in good taste, nor does it wear well. Trimmings 

B ^ B B 



Fig. 85. — Method of making an arrow, a suitable finish for the ends of seams 
darts, plaits, bound buttonholes and set-in pockets. 

of the same material as the undergarment save expense and 
produce attractive results. 

Materials suitable for undergarments 

Muslin: Heavy, firm cotton material of plain weave; very durable. 

Longcloth: Firm, closely-woven cotton material with slightly fuzzy sur- 
face; finer than muslin, very durable, but difficult to work on by 
hand. 

Cambric: Light-weight, plain cotton material of varying degrees of fine- 
ness; soft, smooth finish; wears and launders well. 

Nainsook: Sheer, light-weight cotton material, loosely woven, of varying 
degrees of fineness; plain weave or crossbar; suitable for fine underwear. 

Crepe: Soft, crinkled cotton material; ironing unnecessary. 

Rippleetle: Soft cotton material with plain and crinkled stripes; ironing 
unnecessary. 

Gingham: Colored cotton material, striped, checked, or plain; suitable 
for underskirts to wear with dark dresses. 

Sateen: Soft, smooth-finished cotton material, white or colored, with 
twill weave; looks somewhat like satin. 

Silk: Skinner's satin (silk or cotton back), lining satins, taffeta, crepe-de- 
■ chine, and the like; used chiefly for underskirts to be worn with wool and 
silk dresses. 

Flannel: Cotton or wool; used for warm underskirts and nightgowns. 

Ldnen: Handkerchief linen or linen lawn; sheer, cool material; makes 
dainty garments but creases and wrinkles easily. 

marking. D, The buttonhole is cut along the line of marking through 
the facing and the garment. At the ends the material is cut diagonally 
towards each corner, as close to the stitching as possible. E, Wrong side 
of garment. Pull the binding through, the ends first, letting them form 
an inverted plait just opposite the cut, leaving only a roll at the ends on 
the right side. Adjust the sides of the binding so that the two edges just 
fill the buttonhole. F, Turn in the binding and hem or slipstitch it into 
place, taking great care not to catch through to the right side. G, finished 
l)uttonhole. Careful pressing is necessary after each step. 



'A7'2 A M.WIAL or lloM E M .\KI Sd 

Trivi'nujs .siii'tahlc for iDxtrrqarmcnls 
Triinininjfs should cori-csijonil in fiiicricss with the iiialcrial 

DM which they aic placed; they slioiild he siiii})l(' in d('sip;n and 

si)arin^ly used. A vciy lifllc ^Dod lace is far better than a K''f*Jit 

deal of cheap lace. 

Laces (edyes, insertions, h((i(li/t(js). — The followin^i; laces are 

satisfactory for undergarments: 

1. \'al('nci('iin(>s, or " Val," a fine cotton lace made by hand and imitated 
hy inacliine. It may be made with a round mesh, Clerman Val; a diamond 
incsh, French Val; or a square mesh, Fillet Val. Valenciennes laces are 
suitaljle for nain.sook or fine linen undergarments, but they do not wear 
very well when used with heavier materials. In general, round and diamond 
mesh laces wear l)etter than do scjuare mesh laces. 

2. Cluny, a linen lace made by hand and imitated by machine, varying 
in fineness of thread and design. Cluny laces are suitaljle for nainsook, 
linen, and cambric imdergarments; the heavier qualities may be used on 
heavier materials. Tluy are very durable. 

3. Torchon, a linen lace made Ijy hand and machine, suitable for all 
kinds of undergarments and very durable. 

4. Crochet, a handmade lace of cotton or linen thread of varying de- 
grees of fineness. Certain typical patterns made in Ireland are called Irish 
crochet. Crocheted laces are suitable for fine undergarments when made 
of fine thread and in dainty design. Clumsj', coarse yokes and edges of 
poor design arc unattractive, particularly when seen through sheer outer 
garments; they are too rough to be comfortable when used on a nightgown. 

5. Fillet, a scjuare-mesh, linen, handmade lace, imitated by machine. 
It is suitable for fine undergarments. 

6. Footing, a net trimming with finished edges like insertion. It is 
suitaljle for casings on fine underwear. 

Tatting is a hand trimming made with a shuttle from thread 
of varj'ing degrees of fineness. It is an attractive trinuning for 
simple undergarments. 

Embroideries {edges, iiisertions, beadi7igs). — Embroideries of 
various kinds arc suitable. for any type of undergarment. Entre- 
deux is a seam beading. 

Bias hands, bi}idings, and facings. — Plain, inexpensive, dur- 
able trimming may be made of bias bands, bindings and facings. 

Braid. — Feathcrstitched finishing braid or scallojied braid 
makes a simple, effective trimming for plain undergarments. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 373 

Hand embroidery. — French embroidery, or satin stitch, and 
decorative stitches, such as featherstitching, chainstitching, 
and the Hke, may be used on fine Hnen or nainsook undergar- 
ments when time is not an object. 

Machine hetnstitching. — Machine hemstitching is effective 
for sewing in yokes, holding gathers in place, and the Hke. It 
is done at most sewing machine agencies for a small price a 
yard. 

Construction of undergarments 
Before making undergarments, a good commercial pattern 
of the correct size should be bought, and the amount of material 
that the pattern directs purchased. The directions should be 
read carefully, and the garment cut accordingly. The gar- 
ment must be basted and fitted carefully, because patterns are 
not exactly correct for every type of figure. 

Seams suitable for undergarments. 

The following kinds of seams are suitable for undergarments : 

1. Plain seam (Figs. 86, 87), the joining of two edges with one row 
of stitching. The edges may be fini.shed by overcasting them together or 
separate, by binding them together or separate, or by turning them under 
and stitching them. 

2. French seam (Fig. 88), a seam within a seam. A narrow seam is 
sewed on the right side of the garment, then turned to the wrong side, 
and a second stitching made just far enough from the edge to conceal the 
raw edges of the first seam. 

3. Fell or felled seam, a flat, smooth seam. There are various kinds of 
fells: 

A hemmed fell (Fig. 89) may be used in handmade garments. A plain 
seam is made on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than 
the other, and the wider edge is creased over the narrower. The seam is 
then laid flat and the folded edge hemmed down to the material. 

A stitched fell is a tailored seam. A plain seam is sewed on the right side. 
One edge is trimmed narrower than the other. The seam is laid flat and 
basted and stitched down to the material. 

A flannel fell (Fig. 91) is used in flannel garments. A plain seam is 
sewed on the wrong side. One edge is trimmed narrower than the other. 
The seam is laid flat and the raw edge catch-stitched down to the material. 

A standing fell is used to sew a gathered edge to a plain edge. The 
gathered edge is first sewed to the plain edge in a plain seam on the wrong 



374 



A ^f^\r^!. or iiomh-makixc 




• 



Fio. 86. — Plain scum with idges overcast. Fio. 87. — Plain Hoanis. Left, pinked 

odms; right, lx)und edges. 






■ 



Fio. 88. — French seam. 



Fig. 89. — Hemmed fell. 




Fig. 'JU. — Overhandcd or French fell. 



Fig. 91.— Flannel fell. 



side of the material, the plain ed{2;e extending beyond the gathered edge 
and the line of stitching coming on the line of gathering. A narrow fold 
is made on the plain edge and f(jlded a second time so that tlie first folded 
edge just covers the line of stitching. It is then basted and hemmed or 
stitched into place. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 375 

Uses of seams on undergarments. 

Undergarments may be made with various kinds of seams: 
For a corset-cover or combination, the under-arm and shoulder 
seams may be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams; 
for drawers and bloomers, the seams of the leg and crotch may 
be hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams; for a night- 
gown, the under-arm seam and the seam of the sleeve may be 
hemmed fells, stitched fells, or French seams, the armhole 
seam may be a plain seam bound, or seam beading may be 
used with a standing fell and French seam, or a stitched fell 
may be used in men's nightshirts; for a white cotton underskirt, 
a stitched fell or a French seam may be used; for a sateen or 
silk underskirt, a stitched fell, or a French seam may be used, 
or the edges of a plain seam may be overcast, bound, or opened, 
turned under, and stitched; for a flannel underskirt, a flannel 
fell may be used, or a plain seam may be opened and each 
edge catch-stitched down to the garment. 

Top finishes for corset,-cover, combination, or gown. (Plates 
XIV and XV). 

The fullness at the top of corset-covers, combinations, or 
gowns may be arranged by : 

1. Gathering, (a). The neck may be finished with embroidery ribbon 
beading, and lace edge, the gathers set into the beading with a standing 
fell (page 373), and the lace whipped to the beading by hand, (b) The 
edge may be gathered twice, and finished with featherstitchcd finishing 
braid and lace edge or tatting, or with bias facing or binding which may 
be featherstitched by hand. (c) The neck may be finished in either of 
the ways just suggested without being gathered. It may be drawn up 
with tape or ribbon, (d) The edge of the garment may be rolled and 
gathered and whipped to lace beading and edge, (e) Wide lace edge 
may be appliqued to the garment on the line of the gathering, and fin- 
ished with seam beading and a casing of either batiste or footing for 
ribbon. 

2. Hand tucks. Hand tucks 1/16 inch wide and 23^ to 3 inches long 
may be used in several groups or in one large group. Featherstitching, 
chainstitching, and lazy daisies may be used in siinple designs between 
the groups of tucks. The neck may be finished with: (a) a French hem, 
embroidery, beading, and lace edge, (b) embroidery edging used as a 
facing and edge, (c) lace beading and edge, and lace insertion appliqued 



37() A MAMAf. or noMi: makixc 

ill a siiiiph' (lesion, (<l) it l)ias UM or linisliiiin l)r!ii(l, (c) a wide lac;<? wIrc 
ai>|)li(iii(Ml to nivc a yoke cfrcct, with a casing of footirif^ or l)atisto, and 
cntrc-dciix used hotwccii the ca.siiin and I lie laco. 

3. Macliinc tucks. Tho saiiic finishes may he used witli inacliiiic tiu-Ls 
as witli haml tucks, inachiuc stitchinp taking the ])Ia<c of hand work 
wherever ])ossil)lo. 

4. Siiiockiufi. Several rows of smocking may Ije used around the neck, 
or the sniockiuK may he made in groups. The garment may l)e fini.shed 
at the neck as for RatherinR. 

5. Shirring. Several rows of gathering may l)e put in aliout H inch 
ai)art and the Hnes of gathering featherstitched or chainstitched with 
crochet cotton. Machine hemstitching may be used to make the gathers 
secure. The garment may l)c finished at the top as for gathering. 

6. Eyelets. Eyelets may be embroidered at intervals about }/2 or ^i 
inch l)elow the neck line, and the fullne.ss drawn up by a rilibon. The 
garment may be finished at the top with scallojjing and French embroidery, 
or it may l)e rolled and have lace whipped to the edge. 

7. Yokes. Fullness may be set into yokes with entre-deux, machine 
hemstitching, insertion, or beading. The n(>ck of the yoke may be finished 
in any of the ways suggested, without fullness. 

Fijiishes for nightgown with high neck and long sleeves. 

A niglitsown with a high neck and long sleeves may have the 
fullness set into a yoke, which may be decorated with tucks, 
featherstitching, and the like. The neck may be finished with 
a small collar having a featherstitched hem. The placket or 
front closing should be al)out 12 inches long. The sleeves may 
be gathered into a band at the wrist. 

A shaped band may be used around the neck and down the 
front closing, and the sleeves may be gathered into a band. A 
small collar may be finished with a narrow ruffle of embroidery 
and cuffs made to correspond. 

Finishes for lower edges of drawers (Fig. 92) . 

The lower edges of drawers ma}^ ho finished with a narrow 
hem and lace edge; a narrow hem, insertion, and edge; a wider 
hem, with lace insertion set in above the hem; a featherstitched 
or fagoted hem, shaped or plain; a scalloped finishing braid; 
tucks and lace oi- a hem; a shaped facing; a easing for ribbon 
to be drawn up like bloomers; ruffles of embroidery edge or of 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



377 




Fig. 92. — Methods of finishing the bottom of 
drawers. Left, simple embroidery ruffle set 
on with seam binding; right, ruffle with 
featherstitched hem and lace edge. 





Fig. 93. — Methods of finishing the bottom of 
an underskirt. Left, tucked flounce; right, 
tucked flounce with embroidery edge. 



Fig. 94. — Sateen under- 
skirt with cotton- 
backed satin flounce 
finished with scal- 
loped facing. 



the material finished in an}^ of the ways just suggested, appUed 
with seam beading or a tuck finish. 

Finishes for bottom of underskirt (Figs. 93, 94). 

For the bottom of a white cotton or gingham underskirt 
without a flounce or a dust ruffle, the following finishes may be 
used: a plain hem, a shaped hem or facing, tucks and a hem, 
scalloped finishing braid, a hem and rickrack trimming, a hem 
and heavy lace edge, hand scalloping. 



;^7S .1 MAX I A L OF llOMh' MAKIXd 

I'or the l)()tt()in (»f a silk or sateen underskirt without a flounce 
orailust ruflle, the following finishes may he used : a plain hem, 
a shaped iiem or facini;, tucks and a hem, hand scalloping. 

lM)r a flannel underskirt without a flounce or a dust ruflle, a 
f(>athei-st itched hem or hand scalKjpinp; may he used. 

An underskirt with a flounce should have the flounce set on 
the skirt with beadinu; or a tuck or a felled seam. 

A white cotton underskirt with a straight gathered f^ouru-e 
may be finished with an insertion and hem, a scalloped hem with 
featherstitchinK, a shaped facing, insertion and edge, rows of 
lace edge sewed together, tucks and a hem, embroidery flounc- 
ing, tucks and eml)roidery edging, hand scalloping, a net flounce 
with bias bands of gingham. 

A white cotton underskirt with a circular flounce may be 
finished with a plain circular flounce finished at the bottom 
with lace edge and insertion, or with sections or panels joined 
with insertion or entre-deux, scalloped or straight at the l)ottom. 

A silk or sateen underskirt with a straight gathered flounce 
may be finished with a plain hem, tucks and a hem, a scalloped 
h(^m or facing, hand scalloping, or an accordion- or knife-plaited 
flounce with a hem. 

A silk or sateen underskirt with a bias flounce may be finished 
with a bias strip which is finished with a hem, with one bias 
luffle sewed to another, or with one bias ruffle trimmed with 
several small ruffles or puffings. 

An underskirt may be finished with both a flounce and a dust 
ruffle. A dust ruffle 3 or 4 inches wide may be used on a white 
cotton skirt or a silk or sateen skirt; or if desired, the bottom 
of the skirt may be finished with a hem instead of a dust ruffle. 
The dust ruffle may be finished at the bottom with a narrow 
hem or wnth rickrack or finishing l^raid, and the bottom of the 
flounce fuiished to correspond with it. 

Finishes for waist-line. 

A corset-cover may be gathered into a straight band cut 
lengthwise of the material. A circular peplum may be set into 
the lower edge of the band. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



379 



For a combination, the corset-cover may be gathered into a 
straight band cut lengthwise of the material, and the drawers 
set into the lower edge of the band. 

Drawers may be finished with a straight band cut length- 
wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish, 
or with a yoke. 





Fig. 96. 



Fig. 95. — Bound placket. 



-Bound and faced 
placket. 




Fig. 97. — Continuous bound 
and faced placket with fly. 

An underskirt may be finished with a straight band cut length- 
wise of the material, with a bias facing for a flat, smooth finish, 
or with a yoke. 

Plackets and closings for undergarments. 

A corset-cover may have a plait ^/i to Vs inch wide on the 
right side for buttonholes, and a hem ^/s to ^4 inch wide on the 



3S0 



A MAM AL OF HOME MAKISC 





Fk-. ys. — Two methods of making a hfrnmcd placket. 







Fici. 99.— M ethod.s of 
marking positions of 
buttonholes. 



Fic. 100.— .4 and S, Meth- 
ods of stranding but- 
tonholes; C, overcast- 
ing a buttonhole. 



Fia. 101.— /I, Button- 
hole stitch; B, but- 
tonhole with fan 
and bar; C, double- 
bar buttonhole. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 381 

left side for buttons; or it may have a plait and fly for button- 
holes on the right side and a hem for buttons on the left side. 

Open drawers may be finished with bias facings. Closed or 
circular drawers may be finished with a continuous bound 
placket (Fig. 95), a continuous bound and faced placket (Fig. 
96), or a continuous bound and faced placket with a fly (Fig. 97). 

An underskirt may be finished with a continuous bound 
placket, a continuous bound and faced placket, a continuous 
bound and faced placket with a fly or a hemmed placket (Fig. 98). 

Fastenings for undergarments (Figs. 99-101). 

Buttonholes and buttons are the best fastenings for most 
undergarments because they launder well, wear well, and may 
be an interesting part of the design of the closing of a garment. 

Single-bar buttonholes are fan-shaped at one end and have a 
bar finish at the other. They are generally used where there is 
a strain; the button rests in the fan-shaped, or rounded, end of 
the buttonhole. 

Double-bar buttonholes have the bar finish at both ends. 
They are generally placed vertically in the garment and are 
used where there is not much strain and where the button slips 
up and down in the buttonhole. 

To sew on buttons, the stitches should be taken over a pin 
placed on the top of the button. The pin should then be re- 
moved and the thread wound several times around the stitches 
between the button and the garment to make a thread neck or 
shank which holds the button up from the material, making room 
for the buttonhole and giving the fastening greater strength. 

CLOTHING FOR CHILDREN (bY JULIA GLEASOn) 

The children's garments described in this chapter are chosen 
because of simplicity and durability of design and material, 
and economy of time and money in making them. 

In making or selecting garments for children of any age the 
following points should be considered: 

1. Hygiene. The garment should be such that it can be 
easily cleansed, it should not restrict body development in any 



3S2 .1 MA.\I.\L or lloMi: MAKIXC 

WAV. ;iii(l it should lie li^lit in wcinlit in order not to tiro the 
child. If it is an undcr^iarnicnt, it should be knitted or loosely 
\v()\(ii to allow for evaporation of the body moisture and thus 
keej) the skin dry and clean. If it is an oiitsirl(> garment, it 
should he such that it will keep out the cold air and lH)ld in the 
body warmth. 

2. Suitability of design and material. (Jarments for children 
should be easily made, easily launderofj, attractive in line and 
color, (lui'able, and suitable to the child's environment and ac- 
tivities. 

3. Economy. The garment should be the most satisfactory 
one that can be obtained for the expenditure of the given amount 
of time, energy, and money. 

. Materials suitable for infmits^ clothiyig. 
Materials that are suitable for infants' clothing are as follows: 

For a nightgown: nainsook, cotton flannel, wool flannel, and wool and 
cotton flannel. 

For a petticoat: nainsook, l)atiste, handkerchief linen, cotton flannel, 
wool flannel, and cotton and wool flannel. 

For a slip: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen. 

For a dress: nainsook, batiste, handkerchief linen, and fine dimity. 

For a sack: flannel, challis, cashmere, Henrietta cloth. A sack may 
also be knitted or crocheted. 

For a coat: challis, cashmere, Henrietta cloth, or corded silk; china silk 
for linings. 

For a bonnet: batiste, handkerchief linen, and silk materials of various 
kinds. 

For a kimono: flannel and challis. 

Suggestions for making and decorating infants' clothing. 

Infants' garments are most suitable and appropriate when 
made of fine materials by hand and with very little trimming. 
The very narrow laces — 34 to 14 inch wide — fine tatting, tiny 
embroidery headings, featherstitching, fagoting, hemstitching, 
and simple French embroidery may be used for decoration. 

A nightgown may l)e made kimono style or with set-in sleeves. 
The seams should be hemmed fells; and the hem should be 
made by hand. The neck antl sleeves should be finished with 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



383 



bias facing for tape, and the}'' may be featherstitched. A 
hemmed placket may be used. 

Petticoats are generally made on an underwaist, the neck and 
armhole of which may be finished inconspicuously with a tiny 
hem or narrow lace edge. The seams on the white petticoat 
may be hemmed fells or French seams; on the flannel petticoat, 
flannel fells. The bottom of the white petticoat may be fin- 
ished with lace insertion and edge, lace edge alone, a ruffle of 
fine embroidery of dainty design, or a featherstitched or hem- 
stitched hem. The bottom of the flannel petticoat may be 
finished with a featherstitched hem, hand scalloping, or cro- 
cheting. 

A simple slip (Fig. 102) is most serviceable for constant 
wear. It may be made kimono style or with set-in sleeves. The 






Fig. 102. — Suitable designs for an infant's dress, slip, 
and coat. 



seams may be hemmed fells or French seams. The hem may be 
plain, hemstitched, or featherstitched, and the placket hemmed. 
Tiny embroidery beading and tatting or fine linen lace may 
be used for neck and sleeves. A few tiny tucks, shirring, or 
smocldng may be used if fullness is desired. 

A few dresses a little more elaborate (Fig. 102) than the slip 
may be made for occasional wear. The seams may be hemmed 
fells, or French seams, or they may be joined with seam beading. 
The hem may be hemstitched, featherstitched, or fagoted in 



:iSl .1 .1/ 1\/ .1/. or HOME M.\KI\(! 

:i slraiplit line; (n* it in:iy lie fcatlicrstilchcd, cliainslitclicd, or 
fagoted in scalloped or ( Ireek key desi^;ii; a lace ed^;e or lace in- 
sertion and ed^e may be used. The entire skirt may Ije made 
of fine eml)r()i(lery of dainty desip;n. Tiie placket may be 
hemmed. 'J'he neck and sleeves may he finished with lace or em- 
broidery beading, and lace edge or tatting. The sleeve-s may be 
set in with seam beading. A round, square, or shaped yoke 
may be set in with scam beading and decorated with feather- 
stitching, fagoting, or French embroidery in simple design. A 
yoke efl'ect may be secured by means of groups of hand tuclcs 
alternating with a simple embroidery .stitch such a« feather- 
stitching, or ])y smocking or shirring. 

The sack may be made kimono stj'le, and the edges finished 
with hand scalloping, crochet, or riljljon binding. 

The coat (Fig. 102) may be cut with a large cape collar and 
may be very plain or decorated with simple embroidery or 
featherst itching. 

The bonnet maj' be cut with a flange to turn from the face, 
and decorated with tiny ruffles of lace, rows of featherst itching 
and hand tucks, or a lace edge \vhipped to a scalloped edge. 
The same decoration may be used on a bonnet without a 
flange. 

A kimono may l)e made with hemmed fell or I-'rench seams, 
and finished around the neck and down the front with a shaped 
facing which may be secured with featherstitching or cliain- 
stitching in one of the dainty shades of blue or pink; or it may 
be bound with ribbon which may be secured with feather- 
stitching or chainstitching. 

Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from three 
to five years of age. 

The one-piece dress hanging free from a yoke or verj'' short 
waist, or belted in with a loose belt in a long-waisted efTect is 
a good style for the child from three to five years of age (Fig. 
103). The following materials are suitable: 

For rompers: kindcrgartc^n cloth, chamliniy, gingham, galatoa, percale. 
For dresses with bloomers to match: kindergarten cloth, chamhr.iy, 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



385 



gingham, galatea, poplin, madras, percale, dimity, Swiss, batiste, voile, 
India linon, and the like. 

Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from six 
to ten years of age. 




Fig. 103. — Suitable designs for dresses for children from 
three to five years. 

The simple one-piece dress with a belt is a satisfactory style 
for children from six to ten years of age (Fig. 104). The wool 
dress may be worn with a washable guimpe in order to keep it 




Fig. 104. — Suitable designs for dresses for children from six 
to ten years. 

fresh and clean (Fig. 104). The following materials are suit- 
able: 

For dresses: kindergarten cloth, galatea, pique, . percale, chambray, 
gingham, poplin, madras, Indian head, dimity, voile, India linon, batiste, 



386 .1 MAXIM, or HOME M.\Kl\(; 

and the liUc Wool cliallis, hcnrictta clolli, albatross, and ru-shincrc are 
scrviccalilc linli(-u(inlit \vo(jIcu materials suitahic for winter wear when 
the laundry |)rol)lenj makes the wearing of wash dresses throuKhout the 
year impraetieai)ie. 

For bloomers: If ])ossible, the bloomers should be of the same material 
as the dress. Sateen may lie used for blopmers with wool dresses. 

Deaigns and makrinh for (jarmcntH .siiitdhir for f/irls from ten 
to twelve years of age. 

The wasliablo initltly blouse with tl)e cloth skirt (Fig. 105) 



Fk;. H)5. — Suitable designs for dresses for 

cliildrt'i) from ten to twelve j'cars. 

and sateen bloomers is a satisfactory combination for the school 
frock; or the middy, skirt, and bloomers may be made of the 
same cotton material. The straight plaited skirt is a good 
design. The one-piece dress in gingham or galatea is also satis- 
factory (Fig. 105). 

Knit underwaist and drawers or knit union suits have been 
found by many to be the most satisfactory undergarments for 
children from thr(>o to twelve years of age. The bloomers may 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 



387 



be made on a waist or may fasten on the underwaist. The fol- 
lowing materials are suitable : 

For a middy blouse: middy twill, galatea, poplin, Indian head, khaki, 
Unen, serge. 

For a skirt: Any of the materials suggested for a middy blouse, or 
gabardine, rep, or wool suitings of various kinds. 

For a dress: Gingham, chambray, percale, galatea, pique, poplin, cotton 
gabardine, voile, batiste, and the like. 

For bloomers: Any of the materials suggested for a dress or sldrt, or 
sateen — black, white, or colored. 




Fig. 106. — Suitable designs for dresses for children 
from twelve to sixteen years. 



Designs and materials for garments suitable for girls from twelve 
to sixteen years of age. 

A middy blouse and skirt or a middy dress may be made of 
any of the materials suggested for younger girls. The same ma- 
terial may also be used for a wash dress. Suggestive designs 
are shown in Fig, 106. 

A school dress or a street dress of serge, wool poplin, gabar- 



388 .1 M.wi'M. or no Ml-: .\i \i<i\(! 

(iiiic, \vlii|)c(ii(|. t\v(M'<l, or lioiiicspuii is suituldc and practical 
for a j^irl of this age. 

PATCHIXr. * 

Pat(liiii<i is the ai( of ropairing or restoring worn [jlaccs in 
garnicnls and household articles. In order to make the patch 
as inconspicuous and as strong a.s possible, several things should 
be observed. All of the worn or torn part should be cut away, 
making the hole either scjuare or oblong. Sometimes round 
patches are made, l)ut they arc more difficult. If possible, a 
piece of the material which is as worn or as faded iis the gar- 
ment should be used, thus making it less conspicuous. To fade a 
piece of new cloth, it should be dampened and laid in the sun. 
When the material is figured, the pattern in the patch should 
match that in the garment. If there is a nap, it should run in 
the same direction on both patch and garment. Warp and woof 
threads should match also. 

There are two kinds of patches, hemmed and overhand, and 
one must use judgment as to w'hich to use in repairing articles. 

Hemmed, or set-on, 'patch. 

The hemmed patch is the stronger and is used on garments and 
articles which are often laundered or are subjected to hard wear. 
Hence it is used on household linens, undergarments, and 
aprons. The directions for making it follow: 

(1) Cut a square or oblong patch large enough to cover completely (at 
least 1 inch beyond) the worn place in the garment. If a sampler is used 
for practice,. make a tear such as might be torn in a garment. (2) After 
matching the figures, crease from diagonally opposite corners on both 
garment and i)atch to ol)tain the centers. (3) Turn in the edges of the 
patch to the right side slightlj' less than }i inch. Crease or baste down. 
(4) Place the right side of the patch to the under side of tlie opening with 
the centers over one another, antl the figures in the patch and the garment 
exactly matched. (5) Baste into position. (6) Hem witli fine hemming 
stitches. (7) Cut away all the torn jjortion of the garment, making the 
shape of this opening conform to the shape of the patch, and allowing at 
least 5/8 inch Ix'tween the edges of the patch and the opening. (8) Make 
cuts on the diagonal crea.ses 3.t inch deep. (9) Turn in the edges sUghtly 

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. <.f .\gr., Univ. of III. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 389 

less than J4 inch, foUowino; a thread of the material. If the material is a 
plaid or a stripe, turn on the edge of a stripe, never through the middle of 
one. Also the patch will be less conspicuous if the turning is on a dark 
rather than on a light stripe. (10) Baste into position, using great care 
to have stripes or figures match exactly. (11) Hem with fine hemming 
stitches. (12) Remove the bastings, dampen and press. 

Overhand, or- set-in, patch. 

The overhand patch is less conspicuous, so it is used more 
often for outer clothing. It is less serviceable, for it is joined 
to the opening with only one seam, and the corners are held by 
a single thread. It is made in the following way: 

(1) Cut a square or oblong piece large enough to cover completely the 
worn place. (2) After matching the pattern, crease from diagonally opposite 
corners in both garment and patch to obtain the centers. (3) Turn in 
the edges of the patch 14 inch, on the wrong side of the material, turning 
on the warp and woof threads. (4) Lay the wrong side of the patch to the 
right side of the garment with centers and figures matched. (5) Baste 
with short stitches very close to the turned edges. (6) Beginning a little 
distance from one corner, overhand the edge of the patch to the garment 
with close, shallow overhanding stitches. Be very careful at the corners 
not to take the stitches too deep, as this will cause the corners to be puck- 
ered, or to catch in the two middle thicknesses. (7) Continue overhanding 
around the four sides. (S) Remove the basting. (9) On the wrong side, 
cut diagonally from the center of the hole in the garment to the four ex- 
treme corners of the patch. (10) Crease the seams open on the overhand- 
ing. (11) Trim the edges until they are parallel to the edges of the patch 
and }i inch wide. (12) Cut off the corners of the patch diagonally, so 
that they do not overlap. (13) Overcast separately, with short over- 
casting stitches, the edges of the seams. 

CLOTH DARNING* 

Darning is the repairing of cloth by the weaving in of threads 
to replace torn or worn warp and woof threads. Knitted fabrics, 
also, are mended in this way. Darning is a less conspicuous 
method of repairing than patching, although on garments which 
are subjected to very hard wear or to much laundering, it is not 
so satisfactory. In woolen garments darning is usually pref- 
erable to patching, since it is less bulky and woolen clothes are 
not so often laundered. 

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Ajr., Univ. of 111. 



390 .1 MAX I'M. or IK) mi: m \ki\(; 

I'o make tlic darn as iiicoiisjjiciious as po-^siMc, a ravcliiif^ of 
tho inalcrial is used, or if this is not stror)<f ciioii^li, a silk thread 
is sj)ht into thirds, and one of these strands is used. When only 
one set of threads has l)e(>n severed, whether it he warp or woof, 
this set alone needs to he supplied. If hoth warp and woof are 
broken, they must hoth h(> woven in. The stitch whieli is u.sfHl 
is a short, Itjose lunninjj; stiteli, and, as far as possible, the (hu-n- 
inj!; is done on the wronj;; side. The ed^es of the tear must he 
neatly joined together hy passing over and under them in the 
alternate rows of sewing. The distance which the stitches are 
carried outside the tear depends on the strength of the surround- 
ing material. If it is very much worn, the darning must be 
made to cover the thin places. To form a guide for the darning 
stitches, a basting thread should be run just outside the area 
to be darned. 

The three forms of teais which most often occur are straight, 
diagonal, and three-cornered, or hedge. Sometimes there is a 
hole which is too lai'ge for ordinary darning, and it can be re- 
paired best by placing a patch underneath and darning the edges 
down over it. The method of repairing these tears follows: 

Straight tear. — The tear may be across cither warp or woof threads, so 
the missing ones should toe woven in. Start the running stitches as far 
above the cut, and carry them as far beyond, as it is neces.sary, in order 
to reinforce the worn part. When the tear is reached, pas's over and under 
the two edges in alternating rows, so that they are firmly held together. 
Be very careful not to draw the threads too tightly as this will cause a 
puckered api)earanco. 

Bias or diaoonai tear.— In a bias or diagonal tear both the warp and woof 
threads an; severed, and so they must l)e supi)lied. The running stitches 
should follow the warp and woof threads of the clotli', not placed at right 
angles to the cut. The warp threads shoukl be put in first as far beyond 
the tear as necessary, and the woof threads then woven in. The woof 
threads may l)e laid farther apart than the warp. As this tear is on the 
bias, care must be used not to stretch it. 

Three-cornered or hedge tear. — In the three-cornered tear, also, both the 
warp and the woof threads are severed, but not often on the bias. The 
darning is first done following the warj) threads from one end to the corner, 
then the woof threads are replaced in the same maimer. .\t the corner, 
there will be a square darn where the supplied warp and woof threads should 
be interlaced. 



THE MAKING OF CLOTHING 391 

Large Jinic nr worn place. — Cut a piece of the cloth large enough to cover 
the hole or worn place, and to extend far enough beyond to reinforce it. 
If the material is figured or has a nap, it should be matched. Baste the 
right side of this patch to the wrong side of the garment with the warp 
and the woof threads matching. On the right side darn over the raw 
edges, without turning them under. If the ragged edges are not entirely 
trimmed away, the unevenness of the edges will make the darned place 
less conspicuous. Do not carry the running stitches across the patch if it 
is a large one. The edges of the patch on the wrong side may be sewed 
down with long hemming stitches. 

STOCKING DARNING* 

A hole in a stocking is repaired by a woven darn. In place 
of being woven in a loom as cloth is, stockinet is made on a 
knitting machine and consists of a series of interlocked loops of 
a continuous thread or yarn. In darning, the loose loops should 
be caught to prevent fm-ther raveUng. 

Method of stocking darning. 

Guide line for the stitches. — As a guide line for the work, outline with bast- 
ing the space to be darned. Make the darn diamond-shaped, large enough 
to reinforce all the weakened part surrounding the hole. 

Materials to be used. — Use darning cotton to match the color and the 
size of the yarn in the stocking. For the average weight stocking, except 
thin lisle and silk, two strands of the ordinary four-ply darning cotton is 
used. Use a needle which is just large enough to carry the thread, and 
do not knot the thread. If the hole is too large to hold over the first two 
fingers of the left hand, a darning-ball may be placed inside of the stocking. 
Be very careful in using a darner, however, not to stretch the edges of the 
hole. 

Lengthwise darning stitches. — Darning is done on the right side of the 
stocking. Start at the right side of the hole just inside the basting which 
serves as a guide line. Put in first the lengthwise stitches (those parallel 
to the ribs in the stocking), using short, running stitches. In turning 
from one row of stitches to the next, loops must be left in the darning 
cotton to allow for the possible stretching of the stocking and the shrinkage 
due to washing. When the hole is reached, take up on the needle the 
loose loop at the edge to strengthen the darn and carry the thread across 
the hole, taking up the loop opposite. Continue until the inclosed area 
is filled with these lengthwise stitches. 

Crosswise darning stitches. — Start in the same manner from the top 
putting in crosswise stitches. Interweave these stitches with the length- 

* Ext. Circ. 14, Coll. of Agr., Univ. of 111. 



;3<)2 A MAMAL OF IfOMF. MAKIXd 

wise OIK'S, and wlicn tlic hole is reached weave the woof threads over and 
under alternate warp threads. In the next row, pa.s.s under the threads 
which were passed over in (lie preceding row. Continue until the Hjjace 
is coinjjh'tely filled. 'I'he finished darn should he smooth .so that it will 
!)(' comfortaiile on tlie fool . 

Refkkences 
Haldt, Lauru I. Clothing;; for Women. J. P. Li|)pincott Co. 
Kales, Jane. Drcs.sumking. Charles S<;ril)ner's .Scjms. 



CHAPTER XVI 

MILLINERY 

By Beulah Blackmore 

Hats should be analyzed, and the peculiar defects of every 
unsatisfactory hat should be exactly noted. In this way a 
group of principles may be mastered, which should be followed 
regardless of the season's vagaries in shape and trimming. 

HOW TO SELECT A HAT 

No definite statement can be made as to what should or 
should not be worn. In selecting a hat, the arrangement of the 
hair, the shape of the face and its coloring, the relation of the 
hat to the head and of the head to the whole figure must be 
considered. 

Proportion and balance. 

Of first consideration in the study of hats is the relation both 
of the hat to the head and of the head, including the hat, to the 
entire figure. Since the figure may be seen from all sides, the 
hat should look well, not only from the direct front view, but 
from every possible point of view. In general, the crown and 
the brim should be in good proportion to each other, and 
the hat should be in proportion to the head and to the whole 
figure. 

To make broad shoulders appear less broad, the crown of 
the hat should be fairly high, while the brim should be fairly 
wide in order to balance the hips. This is but a single example of 
the relation of the hat to the figure. A hat that is too large 
gives a top-heavy appearance and thus disturbs the proportions 
of the human figure. A sufficient sense of balance is inherent 
in the average person to guide her judgment in selecting a hat, 

393 



'M)4 



A M.WIM. or HOME M.\KI\(! 



it' she studies in a Inii^ iiiiiioi- it.> relation i<i lici- full-lcii^rtli 
timirc. 

Small hats, such as t()(|Ucs and tuihaus, should l)o carefully 
related to the hiad. and t hcrefcjre, set securely and squarely 
on the head. Nothiiifi; lias a more misfit appearance than a 
toque so larjic that is seems to he hunh^nsome, or so small 
that it seems to he insecurely perched on the head. The toque 
generally should not he worn by a person with a large face or 
with high color, because it tends to emphasize both feature and 
color. It is designed for a person of delicate features and moder- 





f y" \ 

Fig. 107. — Correct size of a crown, shown by the heavy line. 

ately pallid complexion. The hair should sjiow slight 1}' around 
the face. 

A hat with a brim sets the face somewhat in the shadow and 
retires any unduly prominent features. If it is desired to lessen 
the prominence of a single feature, an interesting color or line 
of construction may be so arranged as to divide the attention 
called to the feature. As an example, for a face with a promi- 
nent nose, trimming that tends to lengthen the line from the nose 
to the back of the hat should be avoided. Instead, the interest- 
ing spot on the hat should be placed at the front or the side 
front in order to break the line and divide the center of interest. 

The test for the correct size of the crown is that it shall be 
neither less than the width of the face, nor greater than the con- 
tour of the hail- (l"ig. 107). If the haii' is puiTcHl considerably 



MILLINERY 



395 




Fig. 



at the sides, an elongated crown placed crosswise on the hat 
may be used. 

The crown should not be set so low on the head that the eye- 
brows, which give the dark contrast to 
the face, are covered. The hat should 
be large enough and low enough, to give 
the appearance of being firmly placed 
on the head, not perched on the hair 
(Figs. 108, 109). The crown should be 
placed squarely on the head; if a tilted 
effect is desired, it may be accomplished 
by tilting the brim only (Fig. 110). 

In general, the front line of the crown 
should continue the line of the forehead 
(Figs. 107-109). At the back, the line 
should not extend beyond the hair. If 
the hair extends far beyond the head, 
the back line of the crown should fall 
between the contour of the hair and 
the head. In no case should the back line of the crown fall in- 
side the line of the head. The tam o'shanter crown should bear at 
its base the same relation to the head as should any other crown. 

A turban should be placed well on 

the head, not allowed to hang off at 
the back (Fig. Ill), and thus destroy 
the balance of the whole figure. 

Brims are intended as a protection for 
the eyes, but they are usually extended 
at the sides and the back for balance. 
The brim of a hat should not under 
any circumstances extend beyond the 
shoulders. A brim may be tilted in 
any becoming way if the balance of the 
hat is not destroyed or if the balance is restored by the use of 
trimming. A brim should not be so drooping that the eye- 
brows are covered, or so upturned that a becoming shadow for 
the face is lost. 



108. — Incorrect size of 
crown. The crown 
should be sufficiently 
large to be set well 
down on the head ; 
otherwise, the hat may 
appear to be insecurely 
placed as here shown. 




Fig. 109. — Correct placing 
of a hat, shown by the 
heavy line. 



:^0() 



A M.WCAL OF HOME MAKIXG 




. 110. — Tlic prominent 
lines of the hat should 
harmonize with the 



Hats of straw and other linlit -weight textures may bo larger 
than those of Nclvel and other hea\v materials. A hat that is 
h^ht in color always has the elTeci ot heing larj^er than a dark 

one of the sanu* size. If a dark hat is 

desired and dark colors ar(> unltecominj^, 
the hat may he faced with a ligiil color. 

Line and form. 

Already exaggerated features or un- 
desirable lines of tlie face should not 
be accented by a pronounced repetition 
of the direction of these lines in the 
hat. For example, if there are heavy 
downward lines al)0ut the mouth, the 
lines of the face. If it brim of the hat should not repeat these 
is desirable to have Hnes (Fig. 112). Again, if the eyes slant 

the brim tilted it may .,.1 ^ 1. -i 

be bent as desired, up toward the outer corner, a hat with 
but the crown should an abiupt Upward curve of the brim 

theS ''^"'''''^ °" ^^^^^1^^ ""* ^^^ ^^°"^- ^'^^^ ^^^^'^ "^^y 
be neutralized by the use of opposing 

lines. The opposition, however, must not be carried too far, 

because entire lack of harmony in line will i)roduce the same 

effect as does strong parallelism of line. 

A person with a square face needs an 
irregular brim, because a straight brim 
only emphasizes by contrast the angles 
of the face. A round face or one of 
regular features requires the opposite 
treatment from the square face. A 
severe, straight brim or upstanding 
crown may be worn in this case. An 
oval face needs a curved, irregular line. 
Rather long curves are most suitable. 

In order to be practicable, these 
suggestions necessitate that the hair 
be arranged to suit the face. Aroreov(>r, when buying a hat, 
one should be sur(> that it does not require a special arrange- 




FiG. 111. — Correct placing 
of a turban shown by 
the heavv line. 



MILLINERY 



397 



ment of the hair to suit it; the hat should suit the customary 
arrangement of the hair. A softening hne of hair should 
always come between the harsh edge of the hat and the fore- 
head. From time to time extreme forms of hair-dressing come 
into vogue. A beautiful face may or may not be affected by 
them, but the peculiar types must avoid extremes in shape, 
whether in area or contour. Neither the round nor the narrow 





Fig. 112. — The outline or decoration of a hat should 
not repeat or parallel undesirable lines in the face. 
Similarity of line may accentuate either good or 
bad lines. 

face should have the hair drawn back from the temples. The 
long oval head needs to have the hair done low in the back, 
while the person with a round face may wear the hair high. 

At its best, the hair grows around the face in a graceful line; 
but when this line is not attractive, the hair may be arranged to 
supply the deficiency. There is a legitimate use for false hair, 
if it serves to beautify the proportions and the contour of the 
head or to create fine surfaces, such as soft waving effects. Any 
arrangement of the hair that does not tend to augment the at- 
tractiveness of the face, such as extreme changes of contour, 
or fussy, kinky effects, is poor design and is in bad taste. For 
short, broad faces, both round and square, the form as a whole 
should be built high, as against wide, in shape. The hair should 



;v.)s A MAMAi. or iioMr: maki.xc 

not I)c j)l'('ss('(| cldx- to the temples. The hair should not ho 
hrought low hut should he kept a\v;iy from the forehead excejjt at 
the corners where the short ohlicjue lines su^i^est softness of con- 
tour afi;ainst the face. Tiie scjuare-faced person needs roundini; 
contours in the hair-dressing; the round face needs crisp reverse 
<'urves in contour to counteract the round suggestions elsewhere. 

I'\)r lone;, thin faces, the hair should he ari-angi'd to make the 
head ai)i)ear as l)roa(l as jjossihle, care l)ein{i; taken not to create 
too great a contrast, however, between the width of the hair 
and of the face, lest the hair serve merely as a frame to em- 
phasize, rather than correct, the narrowness. The hair should 
be brought low both horizontally and obliquely. The space left 
between the oblicjue side lines, however, should not be too nai- 
row. This would only emphasize the length of the face by in- 
troducing a long vertical line. The hair should never be piled 
high over a long, thin face. 

The face that is more or less triangular needs the same treat- 
ment as the square face. This tj'pe should avoid oblique lines 
that are produced by parting the hair in the middle, because 
this repeats in exaggerated form the lower shape of the face. 
'J'ho head should not bo unduly broadened in such a way as to 
create an extreme triangular shape. 

Color. 

Color is discussed on pages 45 to 47. It may be said here, 
how'ever, that in selecting a hat one should be siu'c that it is in 
harmon}' with the other outer garments with which it is to be 
worn. In general, if the costume is striking in color, a hat of 
neutral tone, especially white or black, fiu'nishes a desirable 
contrast; while if the costume is somber, a bright touch of 
color in the hat is most interesting. A hat is seldom satisfac- 
tory when it is of the same color, value, and texture as the cos- 
tume. A contrast in value, if not in color, is always to be desired. 

Tri77nning. 

The foregoing discussion of the jirinciples of design applies 
also to the trimming of hats. The following suggestions apply 



MILLINERY 



399 



to that considered in relation to the entire costume and the 
wearer, not as an isolated article of clothing. 

The function of trimming, in addition to its decorative value, 
is to effect slight changes that may add to the becomingness 
of hats. Trimming should 
aid in emphasizing the A 
good points of the face 
and hair of the wearer 
and should mitigate any 
unfortunate elements. By 
the addition of a bow, a 
feather, or other orna- 
ment, the lines of a hat 
may be changed and 
adapted to the wearer. 

Trimming should be so 
placed that it gives the 
impression of being rightly 
distributed. Color must 
be reckoned with when 
balance is being con- 
sidered: a small bit of in- 
tense color may balance a 
larger mass of a more 
subdued color. The pre- 
vailing fashion may pre- 
sent difficulties, but no 
fashion should undermine 
good judgment. 

There should be one 
general direction of line 
and a center of interest to which all trimming should appear to 
converge or to be subordinate (Fig. 113). Cross lines in trun- 
ming should be avoided. More than one point of interest, unless 
these points are perfectly balanced, produces a confused appear- 
ance and causes the eye to jump from one spot to another. The 
center of interest in the trimming should not be so conspicuous 




Fig 



113. — The decoration should strengthen 
the structural lines of the hat. There 
should be but one center of interest and 
all decoration should appear to converge 
to that point (A and B). Some con- 
trast in line is always interesting (B). 
The proportion of space covered by the 
decoration should have an interesting 
relation to the uncovered surface (B 
and C). 



400 .1 M.WIM. or IK) Ml: M.\KI\(; 

ill (•()!( I r or >izc ;is Id del ract troin t he lace, u liidi after all is flic 
picfuic for which the hat serves !i,s the fniiiie. 

If the hat is too heavily triinnied in the buck, t.here is u tend- 
ency to hciid the head and shoulders forward in an efTort to 
balance the t.iiinMiiiiji;. If it is too heavily triinined in front, 
it gives the undesiral)le ai)|)earance of j)itchinK forward, or 
creates a tendency to place the hat too far back on the head. 
This is likely to make the most graceful line unbecoming and 
disturbs the balance of the figure. Hats with the bulk of the 
trimming at one side may appear to l^e burdensome. 

RENOVATING MATERIALS 

When looking over an old stockof hats, the home worker finds 
that brims change in shape more slowdy than do crowns. Crowns 
may often be remodeled, howcn^er, by the use of ribbon or silk. 
Trimming may sometimes be so placed that it changes the line 
of the crown and gives the effect of a different shape. Good ma- 
terials should never be thrown away. 

Storing. 

At the end of each season when hats are to be storctl for an- 
other season, they should be examined carcfullj'. Hats to be 
used in the same way at another time should be well dusted and 
spots that might tempt moths should be removed (page 283). 
The hats should be wrapped carefully. 

If the hat is not to be used in its original shape again, it 
should be ripped apart. Any wire should be rolled and ril)l)ons 
and velvet cleaned. All covered wire should be saved, since 
it is not always easy to obtain a piece of wire when needed. 
If milliner}'- material is cleaned and rolled instead of folded it 
may offer a much greater suggestion for remodeling than when 
it is soiled and crushed. 

The frame material is not often good enough to be used again, 
but if it is in fair condition it may be impioved by damixMi- 
ing and repressing. Good pieces may be saved for making 
buckles, backs for ribbon decorations, or for piecing out another 
frame. 




Plate XV. — Top, simple and effective designs in small hats. Bottom, finishes 
for corset covers. 



MILLINERY 401 

Straws. 

If straw braid on a hat is faded, the hat may be ripped apart 
and the braid dyed and sewed into a new shape. Several good 
color liquids that dye the straw instantly and finish it in one 
operation are now on the market. Sometimes an old hat that 
has faded and lost its stiffness may be freshened for another 
season with a coating of color liquid. Brushing with alcohol 
will often brighten a black straw hat. 

A straw hat may be bleached by being exposed in a closed 
chamber to the fumes of burning sulfur. An old flour barrel 
is often used for this purpose by milliners. The sulfur is 
ignited on a fire shovel or a metal dish placed on the ground. 
The hat, which has been sponged well in water, is hung in the 
barrel, and the barrel is turned over the burning sulfur for 
a few hours. 

To clean leghorns, panamas, milans, and other fine straws, 
a solution of oxalic acid may be used in the proportion of one 
teaspoon of oxalic acid to one pint of water. The straw should be 
brushed thoroughly and rinsed immediately in clear hot water. 
As much moisture as possible should be wiped off, and the hat 
hung to dry in the heat or fresh air. When it is nearly dry, 
it should be pressed in shape with a hot iron, muslin being placed 
between the iron and the hat. If a mushroom shape is desired, 
the hat should be held with the crown up during the pressing, 
and the brim should be stretched slightly while being pressed, 
bit by bit. If a flat brim is desired, the hat should be pressed 
flat on the edge of a table, the crown being allowed to come 
below the table top. Afterwards it should be laid flat on the 
table, weights should be placed on the brim, and it should be left 
until it is perfectly dry. Crowns should be pressed with a small 
iron on the inside. A sleeve-board is very convenient for this 
pressing. A white straw that has been sun-burned may be 
made yellow by being placed for a few moments in a strong solu- 
tion of soda and water. The hat should then be shaken to 
remove the water and pressed under a thin cloth until it is 
dry. 



402 A M.WIAL or HOME MAKISd 

Floivcrs. 

Flowers may he IriiniiU'd aloiip; llic ('dj^cs and retouched with 
water color paints or oil paints mixed with jiasoline. Mowers 
made of silk, muslin, sateen, or velvet can he freshened hy heinp; 
shaken gently over u steaming cloth. 

Ribbons. 

Kibbons may be cleaned with gasoline or washed with soap 
and water. If they are to be wa.shed, they should be .stretched 
on a clean talkie, scrubbed with a soft l)rush dipped in neutral 
soapsuds and rinsed in cl(>ar water. In the linsing, the ribbon 
should be kept smooth and straight, and the water should be 
pressed out by running the hand down the ribbon. The ribbon 
should then be stretched on the table again and allowed to dry. 
Ribbons washed in this way need only a slight pressing with a 
warm iron. 

Velvet. 

Velvet ma}' l)e cleaned by being sprinkled thoroughly with 
magnesia or cornmeal and allowed to stand for twenty-four 
hours. It should then be brushed with a soft brush. A .second 
application of the cleaning agcMit may be necessary. 

Another way of cleaning velvet is to steam it. This also re- 
moves any folds. A hot iron is placed so that it rests on the 
handle, and the base is covered with a wet cloth. The velvet 
is then passed over the iron, the wrong side of it being held next 
the wet cloth. In this way the steam is forced up through the 
I^ile. As the steam is passing through, the velvet should be 
brushed gently with a soft brush. 

Laces. 

Laces should be washed according to the directions given on 
page 272. Ecru lace may be washed in the same way as white 
lace, but it should be rinsed in a weak infusion of tea or coffee. 
Gold or silver lace may be freshened by brushing it with alco- 
hol or gasoline. 



MILLINERY 403 

Feathers. 

Feathers may be washed satisfactorily in a good suds of 
white soap and water. The feather should be drawn through the 
hand from the stem to the tip with a regular stroke. It should 
then be dried by shaking it in the air. Before being curled, it 
should be steamed by being held with the back toward the 
steam from the spout of a teakettle. The feather should not 
be allowed to become wet. While it is damp, the stem may be 
shaped in any desired way. The feather should be held with the 
right side up. It is then curled by having three or four fibers 
at a time drawn over a dull knife, with a quick downward and 
inward curving stroke. Work should progress from the large 
end toward the tip. 

Veils. 

Veils may be washed in warm soapsuds in the same way as 
laces are washed. Black veils should be rinsed finally in a strong 
infusion of black tea to which gum arable has been added in the 
proportion of two teaspoons of powdered gum arable to one 
pint of water. Veils should be stretched in shape, pinned, and 
dried. 

Chiffon. 

Chiffon should be washed in a light suds in lukewarm water. 
It should not be rubbed, but shaken and squeezed lightly in the 
suds. It should be stretched to dry, and when nearly dry should 
be pressed with a warm iron on the wrong side. 

Chiffon may also be washed in pure alcohol and stretched to 
dry. 

White felt. 

A white felt hat can be cleaned satisfactorily with cornmeal 
or magnesia. The hat is covered with the substance, and left 
for two days. The meal or powder is then brushed off. It 
may be necessary to repeat this process. 

Art gum removes spots that are not of long standing. 



404 



.1 MA.MM. OF HOME MAKIXG 



SIMl'lj; IIA.NDMADK IKI .MMI>fGS 

The ability to trim a hat artistically is a ^ift. Tho placinR of 
triiiiininK sluMild he practiced l)efore a mirror and the general 
|)riii('ipl('s of design thus studied. Ideas may always he ol> 
tained from magazines. IMcasing color coml)inations in pic- 
tures and in nature are often the origin of good effects in 




Fig. 114. — Simple decorations possible in 
straw trimming. 



Fig. 115. — Siniplo vi.so of ribbon to 
dcforatc or change a crown 
.^liglitiy. The ribbon may be 
held in place by a ba.sting stitch 
of wor.-^tcd or silk thread in a 
contrasting color. 



hats and costumes. Examples of simple hats are shown in 
Plate XV. 

Trimming sliould always be sewed with as few stitches as 
possible in order to avoid a stiff aj)pearance. Large pins can 
often be used to advantage. Milliners' glue may be used in- 
stead of stitches for holding the fabrics of trimmings in 
place. 



Buckles. 

Effective })uckles can be made by first cutting a shape in 
buckram and covering it with shin-ed ribbon, silk, or velvet. 
The buckles may be padded slightly with sheet wadding 
and wound with a lacquered l)i'ai(l. Two such buckles may 
be placed back to back, inclosing the etlge of a plaited 
ribbon. 



MILLINERY 



405 



Lace straw. 

Lace straw may be plaited and sewed to the edge of a straight 
strip for trimming (Fig. 114). The edge of lace straw may be 
drawn up to make a series of loops (Fig. 114). 

Ribbons. 

There is a wide range in the variety of ribbons. Vegetable 
silk ribbons are very satisfactory, because they hold their color 
better than do those made of real silk, and they keep their shape 




Fig. 116. — Stitches for folds, for sewing 
down facings, and for decoration. 
A, catch stitch; B, lacing stitch* 
C, saddler's stitch. 

better. They are woven as a heavy grosgrain ribbon or with 
long, overshot threads. 

The whole crown may be covered with horizontal rows of 
ribbon, or vertical rows may extend from the tip of the crown 
to the brim (Fig. 115). 

Folds. 

Folds made of velvet have many uses. They are more easily 
manipulated if made on the true bias than with the grain of the 
material. For the simple milliner's fold (Fig. 116), the velvet 
is cut twice the desired width of the finished fold. The raw 
edges are brought together and held with a saddler's stitch or 



40() 



A MAXCAL or HOME MAKISC 



a catcli-.-lilcli. The shiclics should not Ix' (hauii so li^^ht that 
they will show on the v'\\i\\\ side. 

The l-'rciich fold ( I'ifz;. 117) is slijrhil\- more decorative than 
the milliner's fold. A strip is cut three times ;i,s wide as the 
finisJKHl width. ()iu!-tiiird of the strip is folded up to the wrong 




Fig. 117. — Frcnfh fold, u.sod for decoration 
around frowns and lirims 

side. The other edge is folded in and brought down to meet the 
first edge. The strip is then folded once more on the line where 
the two edges meet. It is sewed in place with a sliji-stitch. 
Care must be taken not to pull the thread so close that a dent 
is made in the edge of the velvet. 

The fold must be kept even. A stitch taken through the fold 
will cause it to twist. Measures for the length of folds are taken 
in the same way as for bindings, in order that the joining may 
be made first. 

Bows. 

In general a bow is much more effective when tied than when 
cut and sewed. In making bows, one should always work from 
side to side, and should always bring the end of the ribbon 
through the knot in the direction in w^hich the end was lying 
before the knot was made. 



Refeuencks 
Hammond, Edith Gary. Industrial Drawing for Girls. 1912. 
Yflsuf, Anna Ben. The Art of Millinery. 1909. 



PART IV 
FOODS AND NUTRITION 

CHAPTER XVII 

PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 

By Flora Rose 

Any person who has to choose the food that he is to eat him- 
self or that is to nourish others should know at least a few simple 
principles of food selection. Food is too important in human 
welfare to be chosen in a haphazard way. Fortunately, recent 
scientific work on foods has done much to make it comparatively 
easy to acquire at least a practical simple working knowledge 
of food values. 

The daily meals must supply three things : 

1. Fuel. The body must be kept warm, and it must have 
some source of energy for the work which it must do. The 
greater the amount of work which the body has to do, the greater 
is its need for fuel. If the food does not supply sufficient fuel 
to do the work of the body, some of the body's tissue will be 
burned as fuel. If too much fuel food is eaten, the body may 
store some as fat or it may become upset by it. 

2. Building materials. All the tissues of the body — muscles, 
nerves, bones, blood-cells — must receive a constant supply of 
those substances from which they are built. Children cannot 
grow without a liberal suppl}'- of building materials, and the 
tissues of grown persons will deteriorate if they are not furnished 
with sufficient building material to keep them in good repair. 

3. Body regulating substances. The body not only needs 
fuel and building material, but it must also be supplied with 
substances which regulate its various activities and keep its 

407 



408 A MA.MAL or lluMi: M.\KI\(; 

niacliincrv in ^ood ruiiiiiii^ order. Tlicsc rctiulaiiiifi; suhstancos 
arc iicccssarv to make (lie fuel hiirii norriially, to help set the 
l)iiil(hii^; materials in place, to aid in eliminating; the wastes of 
the hody. to enalde the l»ody to }iro\v, and to keep its machinery 
runninji at all. If no foods were include*! to supply l)ody- 
rcjiulatinfi substances in the daily meals, the body would so(jn 
become damajfcd. 

GOOD FOODS FOR SUPPLYING THE liODYS NEP:D8 

To supply these three needs of the bod}', different foods are 
necessaiy. The hoii.sewife should know the function of the 
various food materials in order to make up a balanced and 
healthful ration. 

■ Fuel foods 

Foods rich in starch. 

These foods should supply most of the body's energy, because 
starch is the cheapest and most al)undant of all fuel foods, and 
furthermore the body can use moi-e of this fuel than any other 
without danger of injury. All the starch eaten is changed to a 
form of sugar called glucose, before it reaches the blood stream. 
This change occurs slowly, and under normal condition the 
machinery of the body is amply able to liandle and transport to 
the tissues the small amounts of sugar produced at any one time. 

The starch-rich foods are: Cereals and cereal foods of various 
kinds, such as breakfast foods — oatmeal, cornmeal, wheat, rice, 
rye, barley — and breads; macaroni, tapioca, and other manu- 
factured foods; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils; 
vegetables rich in starch, such as the potato and the dasheen. 

Foods rich in fat. 

These foods should supply a part of the day's energy. Fat 
seems to be necessary for two reasons: because it helps to regu- 
late the rate at which food passes along the digestive tract; 
and because certain fats are carriers of a l)ody-regulating sub- 
stance necessary for growth. Children particularly need this 
type of fat. 

Fat-rich foods which carry growtli-promoting substances are: 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 409 

milk, cream, butter, eggs, cod-liver oil, meat fat, to a certain 
extent, and fat in soybeans. 

Other fat-rich foods are: bacon, lard, drippings, fat meats, 
vegetable oils or food rich in oils. 

Foods rich in sugar. 

Foods containing much sugar may furnish a part of the day's 
energy. Sugar as such is not an altogether necessary food, 
though it is very desirable because it adds palatability to the 
day's meals and it is a quick fuel. It is not entirely necessary, 
since all the starch eaten is gradually changed to a form of 
sugar, glucose, befoi-e it reaches the blood. Large quantities 
of sugar eaten at one time may seriously damage the body, 
since its machinery is not adequate to care for large amounts 
at one time. Little children receive all the sugar that is neces- 
sary for them if they have a quart of milk a day. If more 
sugar than is contained in one quaj-t of milk is used, it should 
be diluted with other foods and should not be used as candy 
except occasionally as a dessert. Large quantities of sugar may 
be injurious both to adults and to children. Foods containing 
sugar are more wholesome than sugar as such. 

Foods rich in sugar are: milk, sweet fruits and vegetables, 
honey, molasses, sirups, sugar as such, preserves, desserts, candy. 

Foods rich in protein. 

Protein foods must always furnish a part of the day's energy, 
from 10 to 15 per cent, not because the protein is needed for the 
energy which it furnishes but because it has value as building 
material for the body. The energy which it gives is a by- 
product. Although protein gives energy, it should not be used 
as a main source of fuel, since it is more scarce and, therefore, 
more expensive than other fuels, and large amounts may over- 
tax the powers of the body to care for it. 

Building foods 
There are many building materials needed by the body. 
Four of these play most conspicuous parts and should be con- 
sidered in planning the day's meals. 



410 A MAMAL OF HOME MAKISC 

Protein. 

Protein is a name Kivcii lo a Iarp;o variofy f>f siihstarifcs in 
foods. Casein in milk, albumin in e^;^;, milk, and meat, gluten 
in wheat, are illustrations of types of protein. I'rofcin is a sub- 
stance necessary to llie Ijuiidin^ of all living parts of the body. 

All proteins have not the same; value. Some are much in- 
ferior to othei's as tissue builders, and in some foods the pro- 
teins are of such poor (juality that they cannot build tissue until 
a food containinji a better (|ualify of protein is combined with 
them. 

Some of the day's protein should lie >uppli(il by animal foods, 
as these contain the best (juality of j)rotein. .Vnimal foods used 
for their protein may replace one another and will supplement 
the poor quality of less valuable protein foods. Animal foods 
that are valuable sources of protein are milk, egps, cheese, and 
meat. 

Much of the remainder of the protein may be supplied by cer- 
tain plant foods. None of the foods here listed, with the e.xcep- 
tion of the soybean and the peanut, may be regarded a.s com- 
plete substitutes for an animal food, since they contain an 
inferior cpiality of protein. Sonu; animal food shouki be used 
with them to improve the quality of their protein. Phmt 
foods that may be used to supply part of the day's protein are: 
cereals of various kinds, such as breakfast foods, breads, mac- 
aroni; legumes, such as dried peas, beans, and lentils; and 
nuts. 

A part of the daj^'s protein should l)e supplied by fruits an 1 
vegetables. The (luantitj^ of the protein supplied l)y vegetaljles 
is small, but it helps to improve the quahty of proteins from 
plant foods mentioned above. 

Lime. 

T.ime is a necessary buildiiiii- mat(>rial. Many dietaries ai'e 
low in 1 his substance. If it is not suppli('(| in sufficient amounts, 
the l)ony structures of the body sutler and the wi'Ifare of other 
tissues is also interfered with. It is possible that the hard 
water of man}' localities helps to protect the body against the 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 411 

nutritive disaster of a lime-poor diet. This should not be 
depended on, however, Many children, and adults also, suffer 
from poor teeth because of a lack of lime in the diet. 

The most valuable lime foods are: milk, the cheapest lime 
food (a glass of milk contains more hine than a glass of saturated 
solution of lime); cheese; and eggs. 

Next in lime value are leaves and stems of plants, such as 
spinach, Swiss chard, lettuce, celery, onions, cabbage. The dis- 
advantage of using these latter foods as a main source of lime 
is that they are too bulky to be eaten in the needed amounts. 

Iron. 

Iron is a necessary building material. An iron-poor diet 
means a poor quality of blood, weakened tissues, and a run- 
down body. Many dietaries are poor in iron. 

The most valuable iron foods are: green vegetables, the most 
valuable source; fruits and vegetables in general; breakfast 
foods and breads made from meals which include the whole 
cereal grain, the cheapest source; eggs, which are excellent but 
expensive; meat, rich in iron, but the value of its iron has been 
questioned. 

Phosphorus. 

Phosphorus is a necessary building material. If enough 
animal food, whole cereal grains, and legumes are used in the 
dietary, it will not lack phosphorus. 

Foods that are best to supply phosphorus are: milk, eggs, 
meat, breakfast foods and bread made from the whole grain, 
dried peas, beans, and lentils. 

Regulating foods 

Just as much attention should be paid to selecting body- 
regulating foods as to fuel and building foods. Fortunately 
there is an overlapping of all three of these needs, and a single 
food often supplies several. 

Regulating foods should be selected from each of the follow- 
ing groups : Foods containing laxative substances, as fruits and 
vegetables, breakfast foods and breads made from the whole 



412 .1 MAMAL or HOME MAKIXU 

Uraiii; foods coiitaiiiiiifi needed salts, acids or flavors. a.s fruits 
and \'e|ie( aides; foods coiitaiiiiii^; .1 wo unknown factors, wliidi 
have heen callecl \itaniiries and f;rowlli-|)roniot inj^ factors, 
l>otli of wliicli ai-e necessary for health and for growth. 

(I'rnwth-prninnlind fdclors 

The (list unknown factor, or vitaniiiio, essential for growl h 
and health, oficn called the fut-soluhle growth-promoting sub- 
stance, is found, in amounts sufficient for human needs, dis- 
.solved in the fat of certain foods such as milk, butter, cream, 
eggs, meat (if enough of it is eaten), cod-liver oil, so^-beans. The 
following foods contain this unknown substance, or vitamine, 
in amounts which will help; they are too bulk}' to be used a-s its 
main source by the human being, but as a class they are the 
main source of this important substance in the diet of mo.st of 
the domestic animals: leaves and stems of jilants, such as spin- 
ach, Swiss chard, dandelion greens, cabbage, onion, celery. 

The second unknown factor, or vitamine, essential for health 
and growth is soluble in water and is found in amounts sufficient 
for human needs in milk, eggs, breakfast foods and breads math; 
from the whole cereal grain, peas, beans, and lentils. In fact, 
this substance is found in practically all naturally occurring 
foods. It is often called the water-soluble growth-promoting 
substance. 

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF FUEL 

It is not possible in any simple waj^ to estimate tlie daily fuel 
need with entire accuracy. The approximate fuel need may be 
easily estimated, however. To do this, it is necessaiy to have 
some understanding of the unit which measures the energy 
value of foods. Many units of measure are familiar to the 
average person: the ounce and pound as units of weight, the 
pint and quart as units of volume, the inch and foot and yard 
as units of distance, the degree as a unit of temperature. These 
units are used again and again until the mind remembers the 
approximate amounts they measure. The same must be true 
of the unit of measure for the fn(>l value of foods. It is a basis 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 413 

by which one may compare one food with another and with 
which one may measure the incUvidual fuel needs. 

The unit of measure for the fuel value of foods is the calorie. 
If a given portion of food has a fuel value of 100 calories and in a 
day 2,000 calories are needed, one immediately begins to ap- 
praise the fuel value of that food. For all practical purposes the 
following tables are very serviceable in giving an approximate 
estimate of daily fuel needs. 

The average adult person spends about the following amounts 
of energy under stated-conditions: 

Asleep j'^ calorie an hour for each 

pound of body weight 

Sitting (reading, sewing, knitting) 3/5 calorie an hour for each 

pound of body weight 

Standing ^ calorie an hour for each 

pound of body weight 
Light exercise (dish-washing, cooking for 
small family, bed-making, sewing by foot 
power, walking at moderate pace on level 

road) 1 calorie an hour for each 

pound of body weight 
Moderate exercise (cooking for large family, 
sweeping, ironing, scrubbing by hand, 
work of carpenters, meat carvers, house 

workers) 1 J<4 to 1 J^ calories an hour for 

each pound of body weight 
Active exercise (cooking for large groups, 
ironing and scrubbing with heavy imple- 
ments, work of farmers, masons, black- 
smiths) 1 % to 2 calories an hour for 

each pound of body weight. 
Severe exercise (heavy muscular exercise, 
such as that done Ijy lumbermen, ex- 
cavators, and stevedores) 3 or more calories an hour 

for each pound of body weight 



414 A MAM M. <U' HOME MAKISC 

Tlic :i\('i;i^;(' cliild s|)('ii(|s :il)<iiil the lolldwin^ ;uii()iuit> (if 

CnlnrieH a 
pound each day 

For first .'5 iiioiiths 45-50 

Fur scc( 111(1 3 months 40-45 

For third ',\ months 40 

For fourtli 3 montlis 35-40 

l-'or 2d yoar 40 

For ;ird and 4th years 35-40 

For 5th year " 35-37 

For Oth year '. 34-35 

For 7th yoar 32-:i4 

For Sth year 30-35 

For 10th to r2th years 28-32 

For 12th to 14th years 2.>-30 

F'or 14th to 17th years. 20-25 

A simple way of estimating adult needs is as follows: 

The avera{!;e adult spends: 

Calories a 
jKnind each day 

At complete rest 14-16 

Light exercise 16-18 

Moderate exercis? 18-20 

Hard exercise 20-23 

The lOO-calorie portion is the short cut in dietary' calculations. 
With the knowledge of lOO-calorie portions of common footls, 
it is very simple to estimate the fuel value of a given meal or of 
a day's meals. Plate XVI and Ta])les XVI to XXI will be of 
service in learning to make this estimate. 

now TO ESTIM.\TE THE DAILY NEED OF PHOTEIX 

The average daily allowance of protein may be estimated in 
two waj^s. Both have disadvantages as well as good points. 

One way of estimating the jji-otein allowance is on the basis 
of the actual amount of protein needed in a day. The average 
adult probai)ly needs daily about 2 or 3 ounces of protein. Or 
to state the matter in a more accurate way, the protein in the 
day's meals should furnish daily 2 to 2)^ calories for each poinid 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 415 

of body weight. If animal proteins are generously represented, 
the lesser amount may be adequate. For economy not more than 
one-third of the total protein in the adult diet should be furnished 
by animal foods. Less than this may be used. One egg, one glass 
of milk, and an ounce of cheese or a small piece of meat, give 
a liberal amount of animal protein in a day. Less than this 
may be sufficient. If plant proteins predominate largely, the 
greater amount may be needed. About one-third of the daily 
protein should be taken from the cereal grains — -wheat, corn, 
rye, oats, rice, barley. After the allowances for animal and 
cereal proteins have been made, the remainder of the protein 
may come from nuts, legumes, and fruits and vegetables. If 
wise combinations of animal and plant proteins are made, the 
amount needed will probably lie between the two extremes. 

Another way of estimating the protein allowance is on the 
basis of the proportion of total calories which protein should 
furnish. The average adult should receive daily from protein 
10 to 15 per cent of the total calories in his food. If plant pro- 
teins predominate, 15 per cent of the total calories should be 
furnished by protein. If the number of calories needed is great 
because of much exercise, only 10 per cent, or even less, of the 
total calories need be furnished by protein. 

The tables of 100-calorie portions (Tables XVI-XXI) may be 
used in estimating the amount of protein food that is required 
to meet the needs of the body, since one column states the 
number of calories a given food supplies in the form of protein. 

HOW TO ESTIMATE THE DAILY NEED OF LIME, IRON AND 

PHOSPHORUS 

It is more difficult to estimate the daily need for lime, iron, 
and phosphorus than for energy and protein. Yet these are no 
less important than energy and protein, and some quantita- 
tive estimates have been made. 

In general, however, if liberal amounts of foods that contain 
lime, iron, and phosphorus are included in the daily meals, it is 
unnecessary to make any quantitative estimates. The following 
figures are given as a matter of interest and general information : 



lie. 



.1 .1/1 \/ AL or iioMi: \iM<i\(; 



Avi-ranc family |mt capila alli)\\aiiic of liiiic a day 0.70 tn l.OKrilIlM 

.\vcraK<' family per capita allosvaiicr' (if imii a <lay. . O.Ki to .lo jfruiris 
Avrranc family per caiula allnwaiicc of phosphorus a day 2.75 ((» '.i.O urams 

T.VHLE XVI. — KKK^ALoitiK Portion ok Food.s Kirn i.\ Starch ' 



Food inatcrialH 



Bean.s, dried. . . . 
Bread 

Average white . 

Whole wheat . . 
Corn 

Starch 

Meal 

Flake.s 

Hominy 

Puffed 

Macaroni 

Oats, rolled 

Peas, dri(Hl 

Potatoes 

White 

Sweeb 

Rice 

Polished 

Puffed 

\\'h(>at 

Cracked 

Shredded 

Puffed 

Wheat flour 

Patent 

Entire 

(Irahain 



A pproriiiifil' 
iiiciixurr of 
10()-calori(i 

portion 



2 tablespoonf uls . 



Slice 1x3x3 inchc; 
Slice 1x3x3 inchc: 

3 tahlespoonfuls . . . 
3 tahlespoonfuls , . 

1 34 cupfuls 

3 table.sjioonf uls . . . . 

1 ]4, cupfuls 

]/i cupful 

1/3 cupful, scant. . . 

2 tahlespoonfuls .... 



1 medium . 
1 small . . . 



2 tahlespoonfuls 
1 1/3 cupfuls. . . 



2]'^ tahles{)oonful.-^ 

1 hiscuit 

1 2/3 cupfuls 



'4 cui)ful 

'i cupful 

]i cupful, scant 



"f 

calorics 

furnished 

Iirolriri 



26.1 

14() 
1.5.,s 



10 4 

ti 1 

9 4 

(i.O 

14.8 

16 1 

27.7 

10 G 

5.S 



14.0 
lo.O 



1.").4 



r. 



Wcighl 

in 
ouncat 

OH 

bought 



1.0 

13 
1.4 

10 
1 
10 
10 
1.0 
1.0 
.9 
1.0 

5.3 
3.6 

10 
1.0 

10 
10 
10 

1 
10 
1.0 



' Some of the measurements in Tallies XVI to XX were made hv Miriam 
liird.seye, while others were compiled from various .sources iiicludinn Im'C(1- 
iuR the Family, hy Mary Swartz Hose. The other data in the.se tallies 
are based on the table of 100-calorie portions in Food Products, by Henry 
C. Sherman. 



iisSiiiii^ 




^Pi.ATE XVI. — Showing 100-calorie portions of some common foods. Top, reading from 
left to right: 1 and 2, whey; 3, evaporated milk; 4, condensed milk (sweetened); 5 and 6, 
skimmed-milk; 7, whole milk; 8, 18-per-cent cream; 9, 40-per-cent cream. Center, reading 
from back to front: spinach, cream, olive oil, peanut butter, butter, lard, cocoa, chocolate, 
potato, shredded codfish, egg, gelatin, Cheddar cheese, navy beans, rolled oats, bread, 
crackers, shredded wheat, macaroni, wheat flour, rhubarb, molasses, cranberries, oranges, 
onions, carrots, lettuce, bananas, prunes, dates, raisins, sugar. Bottom, lOO^calorie por- 
tions of foods, raw and cooked. Sugar has not been added to the foods ordinarily requiring 
it. Foods in rows 1 and 3 are cooked; those in rows 2 and 4 are raw. Reading from back 
to front: gelatin, cornmeal, tapioca, macaroni, rolled oats, cream of wheat, navy beans, 
spinach, rhubarb, cranberries, onions, apples, prunes, lima beans. 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 



417 



TABLE XVII. — 100-Calorie Portions of Foods Rich in Sugar 



Food materials 



Apples, fresh . 

Bananas 

Dates 

Figs, dried . . 

Grapes 

Honey 

Lemons' 

Molasses. . . . 

Oranges 

Peaches 

Prunes 

Raisins 

Strawberries . 
Sugar 

Granulated 

Lump .... 



Approximate 

measure of 

100-calorie 

portion 



1 large 

1 medium 

4 large 

IK large 

Medium bunch 

1 tablespoonful 

3 large 

IJ^ tablespoonfuls . . , 
1 very large 

3 large 

4 large 

)4: cupful 

1 1/3 cupfuls 

2 tablespoonf uls 

scant 

3^ lumps 



Number 


of 


calories 


furnished 


hy 


protein 


2.G 


5.3 


2.4 


5.4 


5.4 


.5 


■ 9.0 


3.3 


6.2 


6.8 


2.8 


3.0 


10.2 


0.0 


0.0 



Weight 

in 
ounces 

as 
bought 



7 

»5 

1 

1 

4 



1.1 
11.4 



.9 



41S 



.1 MAX CM. or HOME M.\K/\(; 



I'AHI.l'; .Will. l()()-('.\U)i{iK Portions of SurruLENT Vegetables 



Fnoil Diotm'dls 



Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Celery 

Chard, Swiss 

Cucumbers 

Lettuce 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Peas 

Fresh sheUed 

Canned 

Rhul)arb 

Si)inach, edible portion 

Squash 

Tomatoes 

Fresh 

Canned 

Turnips 



,1 pproxinialr 

nicd.sitrc of 

I fX)-ralorie 

])()}■ t ions 



."} medium 

}/i medium head . . 

'.i medium 

4 (Uipfuls of 14-iiicli 
j)ieces 

2 large 

2 large heads 

3 medium 

1 }/2 medium 

^i cupful 

K cupful, drained . . . 

4 cupfuls of 1-inch 
pieces 

2 quarts, approxi- 
iiKitely 

4 small 

l^i cupfuls 

2 cupfuls of }4-\nch 
cubes 



Nitnilicr 


"f 


calorics 


fumishetl 


hy 


protein 


]:{'.» 


20 .'{ 

'.> 7 


23.7 


;«.r) . 


18.4 


2o.l 


13.2 


9.9 


2S.0 


2(>.l 


10 4 


3.5.2 


12.2 


15. S 


21 2 


13 2 



Weight 

in 
ounces 

a.s 
bought 

9 
13 3 

in 1 

23 7 

9.2 

23.5 

22.3 

8.0 

6.8 

0.4 
. 4 



14.8 
15.6 

15 5 
15 

12 9 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 



419 



TABLE XIX. — 100-Calorie Portions of Foods Rich in Fat 



Food materials 


Approximate 

measure of 

100-calorie 

portions 


Number 

of 

calories 

furnished 

by 

protein 


Weight 

in 
ounces 

as 
bought 


Bacon 

Raw 

Cooked 

Butter 

Chocolate, unsweetened . . 

Cocoa 

Cream, 18.5 per cent 


2 thin slices 

4 thin slices 

1 tablespoonful 

J^ square 

3 tablespoonfuls 

14 cupful 


6.7 

.5 
8.4 
17.4 
5.1 
2.3 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
1.5 
19.4 
10.4 


.6 

.5 
.6 

.7 
1.8 


Cream, 40 per cent 

Lard 


11/3 tablespoonfuls.. 
1 tablespoonful, scant 

1 tablespoonful, scant 
1 tablespoonful, scant 
1 tablespoonful, scant 
1 tablespoonful, scant 
6 to 8 . . 


.9 
.4 


Oil 

Olive 

Cottonseed 

Corn 


.4 
.4 
.4 


Peanut 

Olives 


.4 
1.6 


Peanut butter 


11/5 tablespoonfuls . 
8 to 16 nuts 


.6 


Walnuts, shelled California 


.5 



i_M» 



.1 M.WIM. or lloMI-: MAKIXC 



'l\H\A] XX.— ^l(KI-( 'ai.ouii: Poktions uf- Focids Hkh in Photkin 



Food inaUrials 



lied, lean rfjund . . 
Cheese 

Dairy (ehecklar) 

Cottage 

Chickens, broilers 
Codfish 

Salted 

Dressed fresh . . 
Eggs in shell 



Fowls 

Ham 

Smoked 

Fresh lean . . . 
Lamb 

Fore quarter. 

Hind quarter. 
Milk 

Whole 

Skiiiim(>il . . . . 
Salmon 

Canned 

Fresh 

Veal, lean 



Aj)proxi»ial( 

tncajiure of 

lOO-cfdorie 

portions 



1-ineh cube. 
l/:j cupful. . 



1 very large or 1 l/ii 
average 



2/;} cupful, scant 
1 1/8 cupfuls . . . 



J/2 cupful, scant 



Numl)er 

of 

calorus 

furnishcfl 

l»J 
jirolein 



54 5 

24.2 
7(5 . 2 
79 

07 :} 
%.0 

:}6.2 
34.5 

29,7 
44.0 

24.2 
31.4 

19.0 
37.0 

44 5 
43 . 3 
54.1 



Weight 

in 
nunres 

an 
bought 



2.5 

.8 

3 2 
5 5 

4 4 
7.6 

2 7 

2 1 

1.5 
].») 

1 \ 
17 

5 1 
9.6 

2.4 
2.5 

3 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 



421 



TABLE XXI.— Table of 100 Food Units ' 



Name. of food 



"Portion" contain- 


Wl. of 100 


Calories 


ing 100 food units 


calories (oz.) 


furnished 


(approx.) 




by protein 


Small serving 


1.30 


40 


Large serving 


2.20 


90 


Small serving 


1.60 


60 


Half serving 


.65 


12 


Small serving 


1.20 


25 


Very small serving 


.88 


18 


Small serving 


1.10 


27 


Very small serving 


.87 


21 




4.00 


19 


One thin slice 


.96 


23 


One small chop 


.96 


24 


Orel, serving 


1.80 


40 


Large serving 


1.20 


35 


Small serving 


.73 


14 


Ord, serving 


1.10 


28 


Small serving 


.96 


19 


Small serving 


1.20 


33 


Small serving 


.99 


23 


Large serving 


2.40 


73 


Ord. serving 


1.80 


40 


Small serving 


1.10 


22 


Small steak 


1.30 


32 


Small steak 


1.40 


31 


Ord. serving 


1.80 


42 


Ord. serving 


2.20 


54 


Ord. serving 


2.20 


47 




14.00 


78 


Large serving 


3.20 


79 


12 to 16 


7.40 


56 


Two servings 


4.90 


95 


Half serving 


.88 


16 


Ord. serving 


2.80 


61 


Two sm. servings 


2.80 


61 


Two servings 


4.10 


78 


Ord. serving 


2.00 


50 


Ord. serving 


1.80 


41 


One dozen 


6.80 


49 


Very small serving 


.97 


18 


Small serving 


1.30 


29 


Small serving 


.53 


6 


Small serving 


1.50 


30 


Ord. serving 


2.10 


46 


Two small servings 


3.60 


80 


Two small servings 


1.20 


29 




15.00 


14 




19.00 


33 




7.19 


18 


Small side dish 


2.66 


21 


Large side dish 


4.44 


21 


Five servings 


16.66 


15 


Three servings 


8.70 


2 




11.00 


20 




7.60 


10 


Two servings 


5.81 


10 




11.00 


23 




19.00 


24 


One side dish 


3.50 


13 



Cooked Meats 

Beef, round, boiled (fat) 

Beef, round, boiled (lean) 

Beef, round, boiled (med.) 

Beef, 5th rib, roasted, 

Beef, 5th rib, roasted, 

Beef, 5th rib, roasted 

Beef, ribs, boiled, 

Beef, ribs, boiled, 

Calves'-foot jelly 

Chicken, canned 

Lamb chops, boiled av 

Lamb, leg, roasted 

Mutton, leg, boiled, 

Pork, ham, boiled (fat), 

Pork, ham, boiled 

Pork, ham, roasted (fat), 

Pork, ham, roasted (lean), 

Turkey as purchased canned 

Veal, leg, boiled 

Uncooked Meats, Edible Portion 

Beef, loin, av. (lean) 

Beef, loin, av. (fat) 

Beef, loin, porterhouse steak, av 

Beef, loin, sirloin steak, av 

Beef, ribs, lean, av 

Beef, round, lean, av 

Beef, tongue, av 

Beef, juice 

Chickens (broilers) av 

Clams, r'nd in shell, av 

Cod (whole) 

Goose (young) av 

Halibut steaks, av. 

Liver (veal) , av 

Lobster (whole) , av 

Mackerel (Span.), whole, av 

Mutton leg, hind, lean, av 

Oysters in shell, av 

Pork, loin, chops, av 

Pork, ham, lean, av 

Pork, bacon, med. fat, av 

Salmon (Cal.), av 

Shad, whole, av 

Trout, brook, whole, av 

Turkey, av 

Vegetables 

Artichokes, av., canned 

Asparagus, av., canned 

Asparagus, av., cooked 

Beans, baked, canned 

Beans, lima, canned 

Beans, .string, cooked 

Beets, edible portion, cooked 

Cabbage, edible portion 

Carrots, edible portion, fresh 

Carrots, cooked 

Cauliflower, as purchased ; . . . 

Celery, edible portion 

Corn, sweet, cooked 



• Irving Fisher, The Journal of the American Medical Association, 48:16. 



422 



A MAM AL or HOME MAKISd 



TAULK XXI.— Taiile of 100 Food Imt» — Cont'd. 



Name of fuml 



f 'u'nimlicrx, odilili' portion 

lOKKploiit. ('(liblc portion 

l,ciitil.M. ((Mikfd 

Lcttucr, cdililc portion 

MushixMieiis, U.M i)urclm.MC(l 

OnionH. fresh, edible portion. . . . 

Onions, cooked 

Parsnips, edible portion 

Parsnips, rooked 

Peas, ureen, canned 

Peas, green, cooked 

Potatoes, baked 

Potatoes, boiled 

Potatoes, mashed, (creamed) .... 

Potatoes, steamed 

Potatoes, chips 

Potatoes, sweet, cooked 

Pumpkins, edible portion 

Radishes, as purchased 

Rhubarb, edible portion 

Spinach, cooked 

Squash, edible portion 

Succotash, canned 

Tomatoes, fresh as purchased ... 

Tomatoes, canned 

Turnips, edible portion 

Vegetable oysters 

Fruits (Dried) 

Apples as purchased 

Apricots as purchased 

Dates, edible portion 

Dates as purcha.sed 

Figs, edible portion 

Pnmes, edible portion 

Prunes as purchiisod 

Raisins, edible portion 

Raisins as purciia.sed 

Fruits (Fresh or Cooked) 

Apples as purcha.sed 

Apples, baked 

Apples, sauce 

Apricots, edible portion 

Apricots, cooked 

Bananas, edible portion 

Blackberries 

Blueberries 

Blueberries, canned 

Cantaloupe 

Cherries, edible portion 

Cranberries as purchased 

Grapes as purchased, av 

Grape fruit 

Grape juice, small glass 

Gooseberries 

Lemons 

Lemon juice 

Nectarines 

Olives, ripe 

Oranges as purchased, av 

Oranges, juice 

Peaches as purchased, av 



inu ItXJ ftHxl unitt 
(iipprox.) 


Wt. of KMJ 
calories (or.) 


( nuirua 
furn iahed 
by priitnn 




2() (¥) 


18 




12 (M) 
■i ir, 


17 
27 




1S(X) 


2.5 




7 (M) 


31 




7 10 


13 


Two large «er\'ings 


8 40 


12 


One one-half serv-ings 


r, liO 


10 




r,.Hi 


10 


Two ser\'inKs 


(•> .JO 


2.5 


One ."(erving 


:roo 


23 


One good sized 


:ro."> 


11 


One large sized 


;< 02 


11 


One serving 


314 


10 


One serving 


:i.r,7 


11 


One-half serving 


. m 


4 


Half av. potato 


1 70 







i:{ tw 


15 




17 (KJ 


18 




I. "..00 


10 


Two ord. serN-ings 


0.10 


1.5 




7.40 


12 


Ord. serving 


.{ . .00 


15 • 


Four av. servings 


1.0. 00 


15 




1.'>.20 


21 


Two large ser\-ings 


8.70 


13 




9.02 


10 




1.20 


3 




1 24 


7 


Three large 


.99 


2 




1 10 


2 


One large 


1.10 


5 


Three largo 


1 14 


3 




1 . (X) 


3 




1.10 


3 


Two apples 


7. 30 


3 




■.i . 30 


2 


Ord. serving 


3.(»0 


2 




.5.92 


8 


Large serving 


4.01 





One largo 


3 . ,50 


,'■> 




.5.90 


9 




4 00 


3 




.5 .SO 


4 


Half ord. .serving 


S 00 


fi 




4 40 


5 




7 50 


3 




4.80 


.5 




7 .57 


7 




4.20 







9.20 


5 




7 .57 


9 




8.77 







.5.18 


4 


About seven 


1 31 


•> 


One verv large 


9 40 





I^arge gla.s,s 


0.1>2 





Three ordinary 


10.00 


7 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 



423 



TABLE XXI.— Table of 100 Food Units— Cont'd. 



Name of faoii 



Peaches, sauce 

Peaches, juice 

Pears 

Pears, sauce 

Pineapples, edible portion, av 

Raspberries, black 

Raspberries, red 

Strawberries, av 

Watermelon, av 

Dairy Products 

Butter, ordinary pat 

Buttermilk 

Cheese, Am. pale 

Cheese, cottage 

Cheese, full cream 

Cheese, Neuf chatel 

Cheese, Swiss 

Cheese, pineapple 

Cream 

Kumyss 

Milk, condensed, sweetened 

Milk, condensed, unsweetened 

Milk, skimmed 

Milk, whole 

Whey 

Cakes, Pastry, Puddings, and Desserts 

Cake, chocolate layer 

Cake, gingerbread 

Cake, sponge 

Custard, caramel 

Custard, milk 

Custard, tapioca 

Doughnuts 

Lady fingers 

Macaroons 

Pie, apple 

Pie, cream 

Pie, custard 

Pie, lemon 

Pie, mince 

Pie, squash .' . . 

Pudding, apple sage 

Pudding, brown betty 

Pudding, cream rice 

Pudding, Indian meal 

Pudding, apple tapioca 

Tapioca, cooked 

Sweets and Pickles 

Catchup, tomato, av 

Honey 

Marmalade, orange 

Molasses, cane 

Olives, green, edible portion . . 

Olives, ripe, edible portion 

Pickles, mixed 

Sugar, granulated 

Sugar, maple 

Sirup, maple 

Nuts, Edible Portion 
Almonds, av 



fortion coiaain- 

iiig 100 food uniU 

(,approx.) 


Wt. of 100 
calories (oj.) 


(^atones 
furnished 
by protein 


( )rd. serving 


4,78 


4 


( )rd. glass 


4.80 





One large 


5.40 


4 




3.98 


3 




8.00 


4 




5.18 


10 




6.29 


8 . 


Two servings 


9.10 


10 




27.00 


6 




.44 


0.5 


1J4 glasses 


9.70 


34 


IJ^ cubic in. 


.77 


25 


4 cubic in. 


3.12 


76 


114 cubic in. 


.82 


25 


134 cubic in. 


1.05 


22 


1J4 cubic in. 


.80 


25 


1J4 cubic in. 


.72 


25 


}4 ord. glass 


1.70 


5 




0.70 


21 




1.06 


10 




2.05 


24 


114 glass 


9.40 


37 


Small gla.ss 


4.90 


19 


Two glasses 


13.00 


15 


J/2 ord. sq. piece 


.98 


7 


J4 ord. sq. piece 


.96 


6 


Small piece 


.89 


7 




2.51 


19 


Ord. cup 


4.29 


26 


Two-thirds ord. 


2.45 


9 


Half a doughnut 


.80 


6 




.95 


10 




.82 


6 


One-third piece 


1.30 


5 


One-fourth piece 


1.10 


5 


One-third piece 


1.90 


9 


One-third piece 


1 . 35 


6 


One-fourth piece 


1.20 


8 


One-third piece 


1.90 


10 




3.02 


6 


Half ord. serving 


2.00 


7 


Very small serving 


2.65 


8 


Half ord. serving 


2.00 


12 


Small serving 


2.80 


1 


Ord. serving 


3.85 


1 




6.00 


10 


Four teaspoons 


1.05 


1 




1.00 


0.5 




1.20 


0.5 


.5-7 olives 


1.10 


1 


5-7 olives 


1.30 


2 




14.60 


18 


Three heaping tea- 






spoons or 1 l-i lumps 


.86 





Four teaspoons 


1.03 





Four teaspoons 


1.20 





Eight to fifteen 


.53 


13 



.1 \i \\i M. or HOME M \Ki\a 



lAHI.I-: XXI. -Taiilk ok KX) Foou Vsim -i'nn'Ul. 



Same of foml 



llcccliniil.H 

Mnizil-iiiilM 

I{||tt)TIIU(.M 

Coroiiiuils 

Chestnuts, fresh, av 

Filberts, uv 

Hickory-nuts 

I'i'iinuts 

Pi'cuns, ixilishod 

Pine-nuts (pienniiiia) 

Wulnuts, California 

Cereals 

Hn-ad, brown, av 

Bread, eorn (johnny eake), uv 

Hread, white, homemade 

Corn flakes, toasted 

Cornmeal, granular, av 

Cornmeal, unbolted, av 

Crackers, graham 

Crackers, oatmeal 

Hominy, cooked 

Macaroni, av 

Macaroni, cooked 

Oatmeal, boiled 

l-'opcorn 

Kice, uncooked 

Kice, boiled 

Rice, flakes .' 

Rolls, Vienna, av 

Shredded wheat 

Spaghetti, av 

Wheat flour, ent. wheat, av 

Wheat flour, Kraham, av 

Wheat flour, patent, family, and straight, 

grade, spring wheat av 

Zweibach 



Miscellaneous 

Eggs, hen's, boiled 

Eggs, hen's, whites 

Eggs, hen's, yolks 

Omelet 

Soup, beef, av 

Soup, bean, av 

Soup, cream of celery 

Consomm6 

Clam chowder 

Chocolate, bitter 

Cocoa 

Ice cream (Phila.) 



" I'ortion" contain- 

ing IIMf fmMl unUa 

(approz.) 



'I'hn'c ord. size 



Ten nuts 

Thirteen, double 
About eight 
About eighty 
About six 

Ord. thick slice 
Small s<tuare 
Ord. thick slice 
Ord. cereal dish 



Two crackers 
Two crackers 
Large serving 

Ord. ser\'ing 
IVi serx'ing 



Ord. cereal dish 
Ord. cereal dish 
One large roll 
One biscuit 



Four tablespoons 
Size of thick slice 
of bread 

One large egg 
Six whites 
Two yolks 



Very large plate 
Two plates 

Two plates 
Half a square 



Wt. «/ 10(J 


cnUirirn (oz.) 


hi 


W 


tM 


57 


1 •«() 


•18 


47 


<i2 


.Ui 


.''14 • 


AH 


1 .jO 


1 :jo 


1 :«) 


.97 


!)« 


.<»2 


.S2 


.SI 


4 20 


9i; 


:<. s.i 


.-. <K) 


. S() 


.!t.S 


:mo 


94 


1 20 


94 



SI 

2 10 

40 
94 

3 30 
13.00 

5.40 

6.30 

29.00 

8.25 

.56 

.69 

1 60 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 425 

SOME RULES FOR PLANNING MEALS 

The balanced dietary. 

To balance the dietary means to supply in the meals of each 
day, in a form best suited to the individual, enough energy for 
the day's activities, all the substances needed to build the tissues 
— bone, muscle, nerve, blood — and those substances which keep 
the body in good working order. 

The choice of foods. 

The main part of the meals of each day should consist of 
simply prepared, mild-flavored, non-stimulating, and easily 
digested foods. Well-cooked cereals, thoroughly baked, sweet- 
flavored bread, potatoes, milk, eggs, fresh, succulent vegetables 
and fruits should constitute the background of the dietary. 
Meats and meat soups, candies, preserves, desserts, cakes and 
other sweets, rich sauces, pickles, and condiments should be 
used in moderation to give color and interest to the dietary; 
they should not furnish the bulk of the food at any one meal. 

Milk should be used liberally in order to replace a part of the 
meat in the average dietary, and because, of all foods, it is 
richest in lime. Milk is the cheapest animal food; and since 
some animal food is necessary, milk should be the first to be 
considered. It has building materials which are of special 
value for constructing young human tissue. No other food con- 
tains as much lime. It is also the most important source of two 
necessary growth-promoting factors (page 412). It tends to 
hold in check abnormal changes in the intestine. It is mild 
in flavor and lends itself to a variety of uses. When it under- 
goes normal souring, it still is of value and may be used in many 
ways. 

If possible, provision should be made to supply each child in 
the family with a quart of clean, wholesome milk every day. 
A pint of milk for each adult is desirable if the meat consump- 
tion is low. If it is impossible to supply as much milk as this 
for Ijoth children and adults, the children should receive a pint 
of. milk each, while the amount for the adults may be reduced 
to a cupful apiece. If the milk supply for the family must be 



\2(\ .1 M.WIM. OF llOMi: MAKfXa 

reduced si ill fiiitlier, the milk should he jriveri t(i the cliildreu, 
since (he ;idul(s can eat coaisef foods. Less than a pint of milk 
a day for each child is a very small allowance and is likely to 
result in some form of malnuf rilion. No milk at. all for tho 
child means, without douht, malnutrition. unU'ss knowledffo 
and skill arc {'omI)ine(l in plaiininji a coricct and mmh more 
expensive dietary. 

If it is impossible to obtain whole-milk, skim-milk is better 
than no milk, ev(>n for little children, althoufih tht; child on a 
skim-milk diet will not f!;row so normally as one fed on whole- 
milk. The milk maj' be used as a beverage, or it may be cooked 
in various ways. The correct amount, not the form in which it 
is used, is the important point. If the family must economize, 
the amount of butter may be reduced, l)Ut the amount of milk 
should at the same time l)e increased to insure the correct total 
of the fat-soluble growth-promoting factor. 

Clean, sweet, skim-milk is as valuable as whole-milk for its 
supply of lime, its good type of protein, its water-soluble growth- 
promoting factor and for a part of its fat-soluble growth-pro- 
moting factor. Skim-milk has a lower energy value than does 
whole-milk because of the loss of its fat. Half of its fat-soluble 
growth-promoting factor is lost with the fat; therefore, skim- 
milk has not the same growth-promoting power as whole-milk, 
although it still contains growth-promoting properties. For 
this reason, children should have whole-milk instead of skim- 
milk. 

Butteiniilk has the same food value as skim-milk. Some 
persons digest buttermilk more easily than skim-milk because 
the casein is clotted by the acid in the milk. It is believed that 
when the casein of milk is clotted before it reaches the stomach, 
either by natural souring or by the addition of orange, lemon, 
or other fruit juice or junket, it does not form the large firm 
clots sometimes formed in the case of sweet milk. The nutri- 
tive value of the milk is unchanged, and the dotting may make 
the milk more easily digested by some persons. 

Cottage cheese, made of the curd of milk, is a valuable food. 
It contains most of the protein of the whole-milk and is a good 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 427 

source of this important building material. It contains a part 
of the lime and the phosphorus of the whole-milk, and part of 
the growth-promoting factors, though little can be said as yet 
concerning the comparative amounts of these substances present 
in it. As a protein food, it is a valuable meat substitute. 

Whey also has nutritive value and should never be discarded. 
It contains the water-soluble, and a small part of the fat-soluble, 
growth-promoting factors, much of the lime, part of the phos- 
phorus, and it may contain most of the carbohydrate of the 
original milk. It should find many uses in the dietary in the 
form of breads and cakes, gelatin desserts, frozen desserts, and 
pudding sauces. 

The American Cheddar, or cream, cheese made from whole- 
milk contains both the protein and the fat of the milk. Pound 
for pound, cheese is considerably richer than meat in both pro- 
tein and fat. Cheese is rich not only in protein and fat but also 
in lime, phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances. When 
cheese is served as a meat-saver, that is, cooked in combination 
with other foods, it is generally easily digested; it is probably 
the serving of cheese with pie at the end of a hearty meal that 
has given it the undeserved name of being difficult to digest. 

Cream, as well as the butter and ice cream made from it, 
has a definite place in the daily food because of growth-promot- 
ing substances and the high energy valiie of the fat. The sour- 
ing of cream does not change its nutritive value any more than 
does .the souring of milk. One pound of butter is equivalent 
to five quarts of milk in energy value; but counting the proteins, 
lime, and growth-promoting factors that milk contains, three 
quarts of milk will give as much total food as a pound of butter. 
It is said that not only should three quarts of milk be used in 
place of every pound of butter given up, but when a pound of 
butter costs more than the three quarts of milk, it is wise 
economy to use the milk instead of the butter. In a family 
where there are three or more little children, no money should 
be spent for a pound of butter or of meat until after an allow- 
ance has been made for three quarts of milk. 

Butter substitutes are made up more or less of vegetable 



•12S .1 .u.i.vr.w. or iioMr: M.\i<i.\f; 

oils, wliicli ^ivc ('iicrK.v l)iil wliicli ilo not coiitain tlic iiccossary 
jiiowlli-pioiiiot iii;i f;i('1()is of hill (cr-faf . Hrcf-f;il conlailis :i 
siujill .iiiioniil of the f;it-soIiil)lc ^;rowt li-proiiiot iii^; factor; hut. 
even when heet-fat is ii-<e(l in the making of hutter suhst.it lllcs, 
the (|uantity of ii ami of I Ik- >niall aniouni of l)utt('r added, 
varies so greatly that the huttei- sul)slitute siiould not he al- 
lowed wholly to fephiee huttei- in children's fo(jd. Hutt(!r suh- 
stitutes in wliidi ve^ctahle oils are the only fat, are entirely 
lacking in this growth-proinotiiifi; factor. If Initter suhstitutes 
are used, extra niilk is necessary in order to keep up the supply 
of these essential jz;rowth-proinotinK factors. 

Jioiling is Ijelieved to increase the ease of disestion of milk h}'' 
preventing the formation of large firm curds in the stomach. 
Brief hoiling is thought not to injure seriously the value of 
either of the growth-promoting factors. Boiled milk seems in 
the case of manj' persons to have a constipating effect, which 
may he offset hy the use of fruit juices. This may he found to 
explain the cause and cure of scurvy. Boiled milk has all 
the energy value of fresh milk. Boiling does not seem to affect 
the v-ilue of the protein sufhciently to he of any serious dis- 
advantage. Any injury to the value of the protein hy hoiling 
is probahly due, in part at least, to the coagulation of the al- 
bumen of the milk. Increasing the amount of milk fed, if milk 
is the only food, seems to correct any damage which might be 
produced l)y l)oiling, either on the protein or on the growth- 
promoting factors. 

If, as occasionally happens, milk reacts on the individual as a 
poison, a special study should lie made in order to include in 
the dietary foods other than milk that are rich in lime. Many 
times, however, a dislike for milk may be confused with inabil- 
ity to use it. If it is merely distaste that prevents its use, milk 
may be included in the dietary by being cooked with other 
foods. Eggs will i-e|)lace milk, if it is impossible to use the latter. 
Milk is a valuable sul)stitute for meat. 

Eggs should be used as long as they can l)e afforded. ^\'hen 
possible, one egg a day should be used for each child in the family, 
and, if available, one or two for each adult. The children and 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 429 

women of the family should have the eggs first, since they need 
the most iron. If the cost of eggs makes their use impossible, 
thought should be given to increasing the use of other foods 
that are rich in iron. The cheapest of these are breakfast 
foods or breads made from the whole cereal giain. Frequently 
it is objected that milk and eggs cause biliousness. If this hap- 
pens, it is in most cases due not to the use of milk and eggs, 
but rather to the absence of fruits and vegetables in the dietary. 
Eggs are not only valuable sources of iron, they are also rich in 
lime, rich in both of the unknown substances (so-called vita- 
mines) necessary for growth and health, and the protein of eggs 
is of the efficient type. Eggs may be used to replace meat or 
milk. 

Meat is not a necessary food if other animal foods are used- 
in the dietary. Its greatest advantage over other animal foods 
is its palatability. Meat in the diet of little children is always 
questionable. The protein of meat is very subject to putre- 
faction, and the digestive tract of the child is particularly sus- 
ceptible to this condition. The protein of meat is a valuable type 
})ut not necessary if milk, cheese, or eggs replace it. Meat con- 
tains stimulating substances not desirable for the normal child. 
It has a high iron content, but the susceptibility of meat to 
putrefaction may often destroy its value as a carrier of iron. 
Iron may often be introduced better in the diet through other 
foods. Meat lacks lime and has a much more limited quantity 
of the growth-promoting substance that is carried by certain 
fats than has either milk or eggs. It contains the second growth- 
promoting substance (page 412). The protein substitutes for 
meat are milk, cheese, eggs, and to a lesser extent soybeans 
and peanuts. Other legumes are not good meat substitutes 
unless used with milk, cheese, or eggs. 

Fruits and vegetables should be used liberally in the dietary, 
for they are among nature's best body-cleansing and regulating 
agents. They furnish substances which stimulate the activity 
of the intestine, neutralize the harmful acids produced by the 
tissues, and keep both intestine and blood in good condition. 
Fruits stimulate digestion and are appetizing additions to the 



VM) A MAMM. OF lloME MAKISC 

(lay's food. ( "oinplaiiil is offcti made that at certain seasons 
fruit and vcj^ct aides are too expensive to he UM-d liherally. 
However, their value is not cfjinparahle to the loss of efficiency 
lesultinji; from a diet that lacks natural laxatives and iron. 
When apples are cheaj) they should he baked f)r made into ap|)le- 
sauce and should he canned for use during a season of scarcity. 
Carrots, l)(>els, turnips, cal)bafj;e, onions, and parsnips arc cheap 
at a time when other vejj;ctablos are expensive, aiul if carefully 
prepannl they are easily (li{j;ested; they not only give variety 
to the dietary, but also furnish the mucli-necded vegetable 
material. 

A diet enriched by fruits and vegetables has a tendency to 
prevent or correct anaemia, to prevent constipation and its 
attendant ills, and to improve general health conditions in that 
it increases the amoinit of iron furnished to the Ijlootl and helps 
to prevent a putrefactive condition in the intestine. The 
leaves and stems of plants are jjarticularl}- valuable additions 
to the dietaiy in that they supply lime and fat-soluble growtii- 
promoting substances. 

Those cereals and cereal foods that contain the larger part 
of the grain should be given preference in the dietary. While 
such a cereal food as white flour retains all the original energy- 
yielding ingredients and most of the protein, it has lost in the 
milling process the substances occurring in the outer layers, 
which stimulate the activity of the intestines, which help in 
such body functions as bone-building and the formation of red 
blood corpuscles, and one of which promotes growth. 

White bread is entirely wholesome if thought is given to in- 
cluding in the meals, in forms other than l)read, the sulistanccs 
lost by the flour during the milling process. This may be ac- 
complished l)y using fruits and vegetal)lcs for their laxative 
properties, milk for its lim(> and growth-promoting substances, 
and (\ggs for their iron. The ])r()t(>ins in the cereal grains are 
not of the efficient typ{> and must, be supplemented in the iliet 
with animal proteins. Cereal giains also lack both lime and 
the growth-jiromoting substance soluble in fat. 

Sweets in the dietary arc unquestionably desirable, but they 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 431 

should be served in such a manner as not to reduce the appetite 
for other foods and not to satisfy the appetite with sweet foods 
only. Fruits and vegetables, simple desserts of various kinds, 
jam with bread at the close of the meal, and candy occasionally 
in place of other desserts, are the best ways of using sugar. 
The craving for sugar between meals generally indicates a 
badly controlled appetite or a poorly fed individual ; or it may 
be the outcome of some diseased condition of the body. 

Candy or other sweet foods eaten between meals result in 
poor appetite. Sugar is an abundant source of energy, is easily 
digested and absorbed, and rightly used it has its place in the 
dietary. It lacks altogether any building foods, and, if used 
in large quantities, is very irritating to the mucous membrane. 
Therefore, it should not be eaten to the exclusion of other foods. 
The candj^-fed child, refusing as it does other foods at meal- 
times, is very likely to have poor, decayed teeth, weak bones, 
flabby muscles, and a disordered stomach. The rule should be 
to use sugar with other foods and at the close of the meal. 

Enough water should be consumed each day to maintain the 
body in a clean, wholesome condition. It is just as necessary 
to bathe the body inside as outside. Many cases of serious 
bodily disorder are directly traceable to neglect of the needs 
of the body for water. Constipation is frequently the result 
of insufficient water in the dietary. 

The dietary should be planned to meet the needs of all mem- 
bers of the family. The main part of the meal may be made suit- 
able for all, and to this the foods especially needed by each in- 
dividual may be added. Little children should not eat all foods 
that are allowable for adults, nor should the grown members of 
the family be limited to the same simplicity of diet as the chil- 
dren, for children have undeveloped digestive organs that will 
be overtaxed by heavy foods. The strength of food in the diet 
of the child should l)e increased only as the muscles of digestion 
strengthen and develop. Foods that are too strong overtax 
the immature digestive tract, and foods that are too weak fail 
to develop it. 

Persons working hard outdoors eat more food than those 



\:V2 .1 M.WIM. or HUM I: M.XKISC 

whose work is of ;i li^lit, indoor cliiiractcr. Nof only aio they 
ahic to (litest easily foods that an^ rate*! :i.s diHiciill. to diKcsf, 
Imt tlie\- nia\' actiiall\- need food (lial will rctpiire at least mod- 
erate work on the part of the digestive tract. 'I'hey may have a 
disafireeaMe feeling of hunp;er, even when siifFieiently fed, if the 
food consumed does not "stay by " them for a certain jK'riod 
of time. Just the reverse is true of tlu; indoor worker who ases 
lii^ muscles but little. These facts are often overlooked, and 
fre(iuently the entire dietary is shaped to the needs of one 
member of the family. Hard nniscular work increases the need 
for energy-producinp; foods but does not materially affect the 
need for othel* types of food. 

Examples of dcnir able food combumtionH 
Some simple combinations will serve to show how few foods 
may l)e put together and yet answer all requirements. 

Menu I 

\Vh()lo-\vho;it bread 

^^'hole-milk 

Prunes 

A dietary must be built on broad lines even if it is simple, 
and care must be taken not to err by a simplicity which excludes 
any needed food constituent. 

Inhere arc many persons who have acciuired a tlistaste for 
milk unless it is served in some cooked form. When this is the 
ease and when warm food is desired, a meal but little less simple 
than the one just suggested may be prepared by making the 
"hearty dish" a vegetable cream soup. Such soups, which are 
easy to make, nutritious, and very delicious if well cooked and 
seasoned, are too little used in the family dietary. 

Menu II 

Cream of potato .soup, or any vrpotahlc soup having a milk 

foundation 
Bread and butter 
Fruit or a surrul(>nt vcfictalilc 

Any one of the following combinations makes a well-balanced 
meal if sufficient amounts of the food are consumeil. This does 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 433 

not indicate that they are ideal for all conditions. Babies, 
small children, and persons who have a weakened digestive 
system would not l)e given baked beans and l)rown bread, or 
bread and cheese. 

Menu III Menu IV 

Eggs Oatmeal, with sugar and thin 

Bread and butter cream or whole-milk 

Fruit or some vegetable Fruit 

Menu V Menu VI 

Baked soybeans Bread and cheese 

Brown bread Onions 
Cabbage salad with 
egg dressing 

Menu VII 
Meat 

Bread and butter 
Green vegetables 

While the food combinations just given theoretically answer 
all dietary requirements, they may not be practical in those cases 
in which food habits of long standing lead the individual to 
demand a greater variety. The appetite accustomed to stronger 
fare might pall if stimulated only with such simple mixtures. 

A basis for more elaborate menus is as follows : 

Menu VIII 

Cream soup 

Bread and butter 

Meat 

Potatoes 

Cabbage 

Baked apples and cream 

FOOD FOR THE PROSPECTIVE MOTHER . 

The woman's food needs ar-e very little increased during the 
first months of the growth of the child. Even if the appetite 
is small and trouble is experienced with nausea, the actual 
growth of the child is so little as not to be seriously effective 
at this time, in most cases. During the later months of preg- 
nancy the increase in food needs of the mother are still compar- 
atively small, probably not more than 15 to 20 per cent above 



I.'vl 1 MWl \l. Oh' I in Ml-: \l \KI\(; 

ii()IIm:iI. This docs not iiiciii tli;it the food tor the prospoffivo 
Miotlicr is uiiiinportaiit. It i> hi.u;lily itiiport.-iiit tJiat she should 
h:i\(' :iii ;i(l('(|ii;itc ;iiid wcll-halaiiccd (Hdarv. She needs it lo 
keep her ediciency ami to produce an cllicicnt child. It should 
he her problem to maintain a normally eliicient diet, inereiisinj; 
it towurd the close of the period. 

Foods needed by the j)rospeclive mother are: (1) Milk. From 
a pint to a (piart of milk a day should 1k' used to supply liino, 
efficient protein, and the two {growth-essential substances. 
(2) Cereals made from the whole f^rain should be used to supply 
energy, protein, and iron, and to increase the laxative .substance-s 
in the diet. (3) Fruits and vep;ctal)les. To give flavor, needed 
salts, lime, iron, and laxative substances, fruits and vegetables 
are essential. (Ireen vegetables are especiall}' valualjle for the 
iron that they suj^ply. (4) J\Ieat or eggs or cheese. Once a 
day meat, eggs, and cheese may be used, although they are not 
needed if the mother receives fully a quart of milk. (5) Bread 
and ))utter. The dietary may be completed with l)read and 
butter. It is of especial importance that the diet of the pro- 
spective mother should be laxative if she has any tendency to 
constipation. 

FOOD FOR THE NURSING MOTHER 

The food need of the nursing mother is increased in proportion 
to the amount of milk she produces and the child consumes. It 
has been estimated that hvv food needs are increased as follows: 
For the first 3 months al)out 90 calories foi' each i)()und of the 

bal)y's weight 
For the second 3 months about 85 calories for each jMiund of the 

baby's weight 
For the third 3 months aljout 80 calories for each i)ound of the 

baliy's weight 
For the fourth 3 months about 70 calories for each pound of the 

baby's weight. 
This means a marked increase in the mother's energy needs. 
For example, if the bal)y weighs 10 pounds when it is a month 
old, the mother nuisf increase the caloric value of her diet 10 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 435 

times 90 calories, or about 900 calories. A quart of milk, an 
egg, two pieces of bread, and an extra allowance of vegetables 
will accomplish this. 

The mother's diet must supply not only more energy but also 
more protein of good quality, more lime, more phosphorus, 
more iron, and more of the two essential unknown growth- 
promoting substances, or so-called vitamines. If the diet of 
the mother does not supply efficient food, she cannot manufac- 
ture sufficient milk of good quality to meet the needs of the baby. 

Two of the best foods to increase the amount of protein, lime, 
phosphorus, and growth-promoting substances in the diet are 
milk and eggs. Eggs give in addition considerable iron. 

The diet of the nursing mother should be laxative, and con- 
sequently fruits, mild-flavored vegetables, and breakfast foods 
and breads made from the whole cereal grain should play an 
important part. There is no truth in the old superstition that 
fruits in the diet of the mother produce colic in the baby. 

FORMULAS FOR INFANT FEEDING 

If a baby cannot be fed by its own mother, the next best 
thing is the milk of some other animal. A study of the food 
needs (pages 407 to 412) will soon show why milk is practi- 
cally an essential food for little children. The following sim- 
ple formulas may be of service to mothers who are unable to 
nurse their own babies. 

First week 

First day: 1 to 2 ounces of water every 4 hours. 

Second to fourth days: Mix 3 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 2 
teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings. 

Fifth to seventh days: Mix 4 ounces of milk, 7 ounces of water, and 3 
teaspoons of milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into seven feedings. 

First week to third month 

Mix 5 ounces of milk, 9 to 11 ounces of water, and 3 tablespoons of milk- 
sugar, and divide the mixture into six or seven feedings. Gradually increasi^ 
the amounts until at the end of the period the mixture contains about IG 
ounces of milk, 14 to IS ounces of water, and 43^ tablespoons of milk-sugar. 

Third month to sixth month 

Mix 16 ounces of milk, 14 to 18 ounces of water, and 43^ tablespoons of 
milk-sugar, and divide the mixture into five or six feedings. Gradually 



I'M) A MAXIM, or HOME MAKISC 

incrciuso tho Hinount.s until at the closo of tlir- period the ihixturc conUiinH 
about 24 ounros of milk, !» to l.} ounrcs of water, and t'2 tal<lf«po<)n.s of 
milk-sugar. 

Siilh month to iiinlli mimlli 

Mix 24 ounces of milk, •.) to \'.', ounces of water, and A] 2 tablcspooDH of 
milk-sugar. Divide this mi.xture into five feedings. Gradually increjuso 
the amounts until at the end of this period the mixture contains 30 ounces 
of milk, S ounces of water, and 3 tablespoons of milk-sugar. Cook 2 or 
3 tablespoons f)f barley flour with the water u.sed in the mixture. 

Midway between the two moruing feedings give 1 to 2 tablespooiLS of 
strained, diluted orange juice. 

Ninth month to twelfth month 

Mix 30 ounces of milk, 6 to 8 ounces of barley gruel, and 3 tablespoons 
of milk-sugar. Divide this amount into five feedings, (iive 1 to 2 table- 
spoons of strained orange or prune juice between the two morning feedings. 
Graduallj' increase the milk until at the close of the j)eriod the child is re- 
ceiving a quart of milk and a pint of barley gruel. Increa-se the amount cf 
orange juice to 3 tablespoons. Half of a .soft-cooked egg may lie fed at this 
time. A piece of stale or twice-baked bread may be given the child to chew. 

THE PART MILK SHOULD PLAY IN THE DIET DURING GROWTH 

Food for a child 12 lo IS months old 

Breakfast: 6 to 8 ounces of warm milk; 1 or 2 tai)le.sj)oons of thoroughly 
cooked, strained cereal with to]) milk. 

Mid-morning lunch: 6 to 8 ounces of warm milk; jiiece of twice-bakei 1 
bread. 

Dinner: (> to 8 ounces of warm milk; thin piece of crisp toast or twice- 
baked bread; slightly cooked egg. 

Mid-afternoon lunch: 2 or 3 tablespoons of orange juice or other mild 
fruit juice. 

Supper: 6 to 8 ounces of milk; 1 or 2 tablespoons of thoroughly cooked, 
strained cereal with top milk. 

Type of meals for children IS months to 2 years old 

Breakfast (6:30-7:30 A. M.): Warm milk with lightly buttered bread; or 
cereal with thin cream, glass of warm milk; or lightly cooked egg, lightly 
buttered bread, glass of warm milk. 

Mid-morning meal (10 A. M.): (lla.ss of milk with .slice of bread. 

Dinner (1-2 1'. M.): Ma.shed i)()tato with dish gravy, breati and milk, 
very small serving liaked api)le or prune pulp; or liglitly cooked egg, bread 
and milk, small serving l)ake(l ai)i)le or prune; or mashed s])inach, carrots, 
or similar vegetable, bread and milk, small serving very simple junket or 
ri(;e pudding or similar simple de.s.sert. 

Mid-afternoon meal: tablespoon oi orange juice or .scraped apple. 

Supper (5-0 P. M.): Bread and milk or milk toast. 



PLANNING THE DAILY MEALS 437 

Although the child may be at the family table from about the 
third year, he should not be allowed the freedom of the family 
dietary. It is far better for the child to learn that certain foods 
are not for his consumption. There is no better lesson in self- 
control or temperance than the one that may be taught in this 
simple way. 

Type of meals for children 2 to 4 years old 

Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, or lightly 
cooked egg with toast and milk. 

Mid-morning meal (10-11 A. M.): Bread and milk. 

Dinner: Lightly cooked egg, buttered baked potato, bread, milk, stewed 
fruit; or mashed vegetables, such as spinach, puree of peas, or carrots, 
bread, milk, light pudding, such as rice or bread pudding or junket, or 
occasionally a simple ice cream; or bread and milk, baked potato and one 
other vegetable, small serving of pudding. 

Supper (5-6 P. M.) : Bread and butter, milk; or cereal mush and milk; or 
bread and milk, and stewed prunes or apple-sauce. 

Type of meals for children 4 to 8 years old 

Breakfast (7-8 A. M.): Stewed fruit; cereal with whole milk or thin 
cream, bread and milk; an egg may be added to this meal. 

Mid-morning meal: Milk with thin slice of bread and butter. 

Dinner (12-1 P. M.): Lightly cooked egg, spinach or peas or beans well 
mashed, baked potato or boiled rice, stewed fruit or light pudding. 

Supper: Well-cooked cereal with thin cream, milk to drink, stewed fruit; 
or hghtly cooked egg, bread and butter, milk to drink, baked apple. 

Type of meals for children from 8 to 12 years old 

Breakfast: Cereal with thin cream; eggs, poached, boiled, or scrambled; 
milk with bread and butter; fruit may be eaten at this meal. 

Mid-morning meal: Glass of milk and a cracker. 

Dinner: Small piece of steak or roast, fish or chicken; potato, rightly 
cooked cabbage or other vegetable; bread and butter and milk; some simple 
dessert, such as custard, bread and jelly, or fruit. 

Supper: Eggs or cream soup or milk toast, bread and butter, milk, 
stewed fruit or bread and jelly. 

Type of meals for boys and girls 12 to 16 years old 

Breakfast: Stewed or fresh fruit; well-cooked cereal with thin cream or 
whole milk; bread and butter; milk or cocoa; eggs, if available. 

Luncheon or supper: Scalloped hominy and cheese; bread and butter; 
milk or cocoa; fruit, raw or cooked. 

Dinner: Small serving of meat (a meat substitute may be used) ; mashed, 
baked, boiled or creamed potatoes; a liberal serving of some succulent 
vegetable; bread and butter; milk; a simple dessert. 



ciiAiTi:!; will 

MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 
By Anna ITunx 

The housewife has the duly and j)rivilege of speiidiiiK foi* food 
on an average of about 30 or 40 per cent of the family income. 
Hers is the tremendous responsibility of seeing liiat the family 
is supplied with food necessary for its growth and maintenance 
at its highest efficiency. Good buying is based on knowledge. 
This knowledge may be obtained only through practice and 
study. The housewife should, therefore, be alert and (juick to 
seize evcny opi)oi-tunity to know more of the production, the 
marketing, the nutritive value, and the cost of the vast number 
of articles which she has to buy. She is expected to be expert 
in the buying of not only one article, but hundreds. She has 
an unlimitcnl field for study. 

A good l)uyer plans for the present and for the future. She 
carefully considers the material in the storerooms, ice-boxes, 
and gardens, and plans to buy only that which will supplement 
or enable her to use the food already on hand. The next step 
is to visit the markets. The good buyer rarely telephones. 
The exceptions to this rule would be an emergency call or the 
buying of standard products, such as sugar, cereals, spices, or 
known brands of goods. 

The housewife uses the senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell 
in her final judgment of food. It is quite as essential that she 
should use the same senses in buying food. To do this it is 
necessary that she should go to market. For buying commodi- 
ties it might be well to have the following points in mind: A 
definite amount should be ord(>r(>d in pounds or definite nieas- 
ur(>; the unit price of the connnodity should be ascertained; 
correct scales and measures should be used and the full amount 

• 438 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 439 

paid for delivered. To check the measures and weights, cor- 
rect scales and measures should be a part of every kitchen 
equipment (page 129). 

BUYING FRESH OR STAPLE FOODSTUFFS 

Kind of food. 

The kind of food which the buyer seeks is based on the family's 
standard of living. Such as may quite properly be bought by 
those who can afford it, may not be at all suitable for those with 
a smaller income. 

In order to choose wisely between two or more foods, the 
housewife should know the nutritive value, the proportion of 
edible and non-edible material, and the cost. This knowledge 
comes only through study and comparison. 

Grade of food. 

After the buyer has decided on the kind of food to buy, the 
next step is to select the grade best suited to individual needs. 
To be able to judge of grades, it is necessary to know the stand- 
ard products, or to know the qualities that enhance and the 
qualities that decrease the value of the food. 

In the case of fresh fruits and vegetables, the standard prod- 
uct should be well-matiu'ed, sound, free from blemish, uniform 
in size and shape, of good color, fresh, clean, and well packed. 
Most of these qualities may be determined by the eye, some by 
the touch, and others by the odor and the taste. Among grades, 
as among foods themselves, there are differences in nutritive 
value, in proportion of edible and non-edible material, and in 
cost. These differences may be determined only by study and 
comparison. Selection of meat is discussed on page 510, and 
canned foods on page 445. 

Up to the present time, most food has been graded from the 
point of view of the producer rather than of the consumer. 
Few foods have been graded and labeled so that the consmiier 
and the merchant can talk on the same basis. Until this is 
done, it will be difficult for the housewife to buy intelligently. 
She should, however, read carefully the labels on all packages 



I 10 



A MAM A I. or HOME MAKISC 



>li(>\viii|i llic net \v('i^;lits mihI the coiniKoil idii of llic con- 
Iciils. 

Anioiiiit to In hdUijId. 

After the kind and tirade of food have lK<n decided on, it is 
next necessary to determine the definite ainouni to laiy, which 
depends primarily on such factors as the following: ^Fhe amount 
allowed for one person (this amount is the basis of good buying 
and if properly estimated insures enough food for all and elimi- 
nates to a great degree the j)rohlem of left-over food [see Talile 
XXII] ); the number to be fed; the number of times the f(x>d is 
to be served; the keeping {[ualities of the food (the amount 
bought should be small enough to prevent depreciation); the 
available storage facilitic^s; the amount of money available to in- 
vest (interest on the money invested in food shouki be added to 
the cost of the food); the terms of contract; the relative advan- 

TABLE XXII. — Servings of Vegetables in One Pound 



Vegetable 

Asparagus 

Beans, dry 

Beans, string. . . 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Onions 

Parsnips 

Potatoes 

Salsify 

Brussels sprouts . 

Spinach 

Squash, summer 
Squash, winter. . 
Sweet potatoes. 
Swiss chard .... 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 



Approxiinale size 


X umber servings 


of sennng 


in one pound 


H cup 


4 


H cup 


8-9 


H cup 


4 


Vz cup 


4-5 


M cup 


3 


14 eup 


4-5 


^4CUp 


3 


H cup 


4 


Vz eup 


4 


1 2 eup 


4 


H cup 


3 


^2 cup 


3 


Hcup 


5-6 


' 2 cup 


4 


? 2 cup 


1-2 


' 2 cup 


2-3 


1 potato 


3-4 


J^cup 


3-4 


}4 cup 


3-4 


' 2 CUl) 


4-5 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 



441 



tages of buying in large quantities; the season of the year (it is 
best to buy large amounts of food for storage when the new crops 
come in; this is especially true of dried fruits and many grain 
products, which come on the market but once a year) ; the cost. 

Bulk or unit ^package. 

When the amount to be bought has been determined, the 
housewife must decide whether to buy in bulk or package, and, 
if in package, the size of the unit. It is genei'ally cheaper to buy 
in bulk than in package. (See Table XXIII.) The package 
costs more because of the container and the labor involved in 
packing and handling. The package, on the other hand, has 
the merit of being air-tight and dirt-proof. For these and other 
reasons it is preferred by some persons. It is possible, however, 
for the grocer to keep food in bulk in a satisfactory and sanitary 
condition. Buying in bulk usually necessitates storage in moist- 



TABLE XXIII.- 



COMPARISON OF CoST OF FoOD BoUGHT IN PACKAGE 

AND IN Bulk 



Food 



Bacon 

Cocoa 

Cocoanut 

Codfish 

Coffee 

Crackers (soda) . . . 
Crackers (graham) 

Ginger snaps 

Ginger 

Macaroni 

Peanut butter . . . . 

Peas (a can) 

Raisins 

Rolled oats 

Saltines 

Starch 

Tapioca 

Vinegar 



Cost of 
package 



.38 

.04 

.24 

.35 

.05 

.10 

.05 

.075 

.10 

.30 

.18 

.135 

.13 

.15 

.09 

.25 

.24 



Weight or measure 

of contents of 

package 



9 ounces 
16 ounces 
3 . 5 ounces 
16 ounces 
16 ounces 
24 crackers 
33 crackers 
5 ounces 
4 ounces 
12.5 ounces 
20 ounces 
2 cups 

15 ounces 
20 ounces 
45 crackers 

16 ounces 
16 ounces 
1 quart 



Amount obtainable 

in bulk for the 

same money 



13 . 3 ounces 

30.4 ounces 
5.75 ounces 
20 ounces 

17.5 ounces 
35 crackers 
48 crackers 
8 ounces 

6 ounces 
16 ounces 
27 ounces 
4 cups cooked 
16 ounces 
23 ounces 
96 crackers 
19.5 ounces 
19 ounces 
2 quarts 



II 'J 



.1 M.WIAL (IF IlOMi: M.\KI\(; 



lire and Ncniiiii-prdol iccrplarlo. Siidi icccptacrlos acciiriiM- 
lati" in cvciy liouschold and slioiilil l»c sa\'c(| for tlii> purpose. 

Units of sdlr. 

Most coiiiiiHiilil ics arc sold l)y llic pound. 'I'lic tciiilcucy is 
to increase llic nuuiher llius sold, since tlie ix)und is an exact 

TAHLE XXIW — r.MTs IN WHICH Vecetahlks akk Solo in Ni:\v Vokk 

State 



Vcgeliiblc 



Asparagus 

Means, striiifi;. . . . 

Hoans, lima 

Hoots 

lirussols sprouts. . 

('al)l)a<j;o 

Cahbago, Cliinosc 

Cauliflowor 

Carrots 

Celory 

Corn 

Cross 

Ciicuinhors 

I'^ggplant 

I lorso-radish root 

Kale 

Kohlrabi 

Looks 

Lottuco 

Mushrooms 

Onions 

Parsl(\v 

Parsnips 

Peas 



Poppers 

Potatoes 

Pumpkin 

{{adishos 

Rom:iiiio 

Siiuash 

'I'omatoos 

Turnips 

Salsify (vofjiotable oyslcr 



I' nil 



Bunoh varies from ?2 to 2^2 pounds 

Pound; 2.')-pound hamper 

Pound in pod; ([uarts when shelled 

Pounil; bunch 

Quart 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound; (Tate; haiiipiT 

Pound; buneh 

Hunch, 12 stalks in a bunch 

Dozen oars 

Pound 

Piece; dozen; hamper 

Piece; crate; hami)er 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Pound 

Head; dozen heads 

Pound 

Pound 

P>unch; dozen bunches 

Pound 

Hushel measure 

Piece; dozen; barrel 

Pound 

Piece 

Hunch; dozen bunches 

Pound 

l*ound 

Piiund; standard ' j bushel (Tate 

Pound 

Hunch; dozen Itunches 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 



443 



TABLE XXV. — Units in which Fruits are sold in New York State 



Fruit 


Unit 


Apples 


Pound; standard barrel (3 bushels) 


Apricots 

Bananas 


California crate, 22 pounds 
Pound 


Berries 

Cantaloupes 

Cranberries . 


Quart; crate of 32 quarts 

Pound; crate according to size 

Pound; 100 pounds in a barrel 

Piece; box of from 46 to 96 grapefruit 

Pound 

Dozen; box of from 300 to 360 lemons 


Grape fruit 


Grapes 

Lemons 


Oranges 

Peaches 


Dozen; box of from 96 to 250 oranges 
Pound; standard 3^ bushel peach basket 
Pound 


Pears 


Pineapples 

Plums 

Quinces 

Rhubarb 

Watermelon 


Piece; case 

Standard }4 bushel basket 

By measure 

Pound 

Piece 



measure, whereas the bunch or basket or other container is too 
often unstandardized. (See Tables XXIV and XXV.) 

Price. 

The price to pay depends on market conditions. The market 
and crop conditions may be learned by a study of the market 
reports in the daily newspapers. These prices, however, are 
generally wholesale prices, and since the latter are not always 
reflected in the retail market, they serve only as a guide. Local 
crop and local market conditions may be such as either to lower 
or raise the retail price. In order to obtain the best price, it is 
necessary for the housewife to study the prices at the local stores 
and then, if possible, compare them with prices of some out-of- 
town firm. 

Where to buy. 

The question of where to buy may be settled by buying where 
the maximum value can be obtained for the minimum price. 
This place can be determined by a study of markets. It is al- 
ways advisable to know the sanitary conditions surrounding the 



.1 MAMAL or ll(>\4K MAKISC 



prddiiclioM and iiiiirki'tiiiji; of tlic |)i(»<lii(ts. 'I'licrc is also 1r> Iw 
(•()Msi(|('i('(| t he lactor of discounts, generally l)asc<| on llic amount 
hou^lit , t he t inic ami place (jf delivery, and I lie dcliveiy diaries. 
When l)U.\ iufj; from out of (own, it. is necessary to consider the 
cost of freight and cartage. Cheapness does not always mean 
^;ood (juality or full weight. lOvery food at a reduced i)rice is 
ofTered for one of two reasons: because the market is over- 
supplied; or because the owner is afraid to li-k further deprecia- 
tion. In most cases this depreciation has already' set in, and it is 
unwise to l)uy such food unless it can be used immediately. If 
the dealer is selling goods below the market price, the goods are 
generally below the market standards. Only an expert can 
know a bargain. 

Ins-pedion of goods on delivery. 

On arrival at the house, goods should be opened and examined 
as to grade and c(jn(lition. If not acceptable, they should be 
returned at once. The goods should be checked with the in- 
voice for quantity and weight, price of units, and total costs. The 
invoice sliould be filed to check with the weekly or monthly' bill. 

Records. 

In the case of staples, it is often desirable to keep a stock 

Stock Record — Sugar 







Price a 


Total 




Yearly con- 


Date 


A mount 


pound 


COfit 


Inventory 


sumption 




(Potmds) 


(f)ollars) 


(Dollars) 


{Pounds) 


(Pounds) 


1910 












8/17 


.") 


(I'.t 


.45 






8/2S 


10 


.OS 


.SO 






9/5 


25 


.05 


1 . 25 






9/20 


15 


.071 2 


1.14 






1917 












2/10 


50 


05 


2 50 






4/15 


25 

i;io 


05 


1 25 

7 :v.) 






9/7 








is 


112 


9 '21 


100 


()'.» 


\) 00 







MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 445 

record. The form of record as here suggested for sugar enables 
one to tell at a glance the date, the amount bought, and the 
price paid for the article in question. The housekeeper has in 
these stock cards a basis on which to buy for the coming year. 
In case no other records (page 177) are kept, it is desirable to 
include the name of the firm from whom the goods were bought. 

Storage. 

The proper storing of food is very important, because only 
by having good storage conditions can there be profit in buying 
in large quantities. It is desirable to have cool, dry, and well- 
ventilated store-rooms (page 583). Fresh vegetables, fresh 
fruits, and dried vegetables and fruits should be kept in such a 
storeroom, and should be so packed as to allow free circulation 
of air. The exceptions to this rule are sweet potatoes, which 
should be stored in a dry, warm place, and bananas, which 
should never be allowed to chill since this causes them to 
blacken. Staples, such as cereals, flours, sugars, and other dry 
products should be kept in dry, moderately cool, well-ventilated 
storage. Meat, fish, butter, and milk may be kept at a lower 
temperature, 36° F., or lower. 

Low temperature and lack of moisture both tend to retard 
the growth of micro-organisms that cause spoilage. Most 
storage foods should be well matured before being stored and 
should be looked over at certain intervals for the removal of 
any decayed or spoiled portions. 

BUYING CANNED FOODS* 

Grading fruits and vegetables for canning. 

Before one can distinguish the relative values of market 
grades of canned goods, it is necessary to know how these are 
determined by the packer. For fruits and vegetables the lines 
of quality determination are much the same and as follows : 

* The following discussion of canned foods is condensed from Canned 
Foods, Fruits and Vegetables, by Florence R. Corbett, Tech. Education 
Bull. 18, Teachers College, Columbia University. 



IK) .1 MAM AL olHt/Mi: MM<L\(; 

Locdlitu in u'hicli the fruit or rajrUihlc is (jrown. — Xatunilly 
flic fruils and v('ji;('l!il)l('s produced in sections where expert 
{fanlcninji; or fruit -laisinji; prevails and wliicli naturally favor 
such crops, will he superior in (jualit y. < )f the ukjsI conunon and 
widely used, those j!;ro\vn in the northern states are superior in 
textuic and flavor to those }i;ro\vn in the South, and because of 
the tirnier ti'xtin-c "stand up" better in packing. 

Size of the fruit or rerjetahlc. — -The larger th(> fruit, provided it 
is unifoi-ni and fj;ood in other respects, the higher it will be graded. 
The smaller vef^etables arc graded highest, since they arc gen- 
erally younger and tenderer, juicier, and sweeter. 

Fhivor is an important factor to the consumer, but does not 
take precedence of size, texture, and color in grading either 
fruits or vegetables, because the buyer is generall}' infhienced 
by the handsome appearance of fruits or the delicate appear- 
ance of immature vegetables which may be quite lacking in 
flavor. The pul)lic's preference is taken into consideration, 
and fine-flavored products, not notable for size or color, may 
be graded lower than those of pleasing appearance and infer- 
ior flavor. A striking illustration of this is found in the jiri-f- 
erence for very small peas which consist principally of skins, 
water, and a little sugar. Because of public preference, these 
are graded higher than the larger peas of rich flavor and higher 
nutritive value. 

Texture. — Fine texture is a characteristic of high-gi-ade fruits 
and vegetables. Tough peas and l)eans, fibrous oki'a and a-^- 
paragus are graded low. 

Color. — The natural color of the jiroduct when at its best 
is the standard of the high-grade pack. Unfortunately, the 
attempt to emulate nature has l)een overdone by some packers 
to the point where most of the public have come to regard cop- 
per-greened i^eas and beans as superior to those of nature's 
green. Now that the law requires that the facts regarding the 
use of coloring matter be stated on the jiackage. the jiublic is in a 
position to choose between the natural and the artificial, the safe 
and the possibly harmful. Fortunately, it is the fancy grades 
of vegetables which receive the copper treatment, such as the 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 447 

very small peas and beans in which the nutritive value is low and 
the piice prohibitively high to the average buyer. Even when 
the natural color of the vegetable after cooking is the standard 
sought, grading of the product is still done on color lines. Peas 
that have an occasional yellow one in the lot are graded lower 
than those uniformly green, while if many are yellowish the lot 
is graded lower still. String beans containing an occasional 
brown or rusty pod are graded lower than those uniformly 
green. 

Form, whole or cut. — The fruit or vegetable of suitable size 
which is sufficiently perfect — free from bruise and spots of de- 
cay — to can whole is of the highest grade, provided it grades 
high on other points. Those cut in halves grade next highest, 
such as peaches, apricots,'^pears, and apples, and those in slices 
next, such as sliced peaches. Smaller pieces, sometimes re- 
ferred to as chips, grade lower yet. Pineapple slices afford the 
highest grade in that fruit, the chunks and cubes grading next 
and the chipped, grated, and crushed pineapple respectively 
lower. 

Preparation; peeled, unpeeled, pitted, corec?.— Those fruits 
which are improved by peeling are left unpeeled only in the 
lowest grades. The same is true of pitting and coring, except 
when the fruit is handsome in appearance but unsound at the 
pit or core. 

Medium of packing. — Fruits packed in water are of the lowest 
grade and generally known as "pie" fruit. Those packed in 
sirups are graded according to the density of the sirup, 35° to 
40° sirup being used for preserves, such as strawberries, 30° to 
34° for fancy peaches, plums and other fruit for table sauce; 
25° to 28° for high-grade fruits for table sauce; 20° to 25° for a 
still less rich grade of table sauce, and 10° to 20° for very light 
sirup suitable only on sweet fruits or those to which more sugar 
will be added in preparation for the table. Juicy vegetables such 
as tomatoes are now by law required to be packed in their own 
juice. Other vegetables must be packed in as little water as is 
necessary to immerse them completely. A little salt and sugar 
are allowed in the liquid. 



44S .1 MAX I A L OF HOME MAKISC 

Trade trrnis. 

"Pie fruit" is the lowest cliiss of fruit. In poachos thoro are 
two p;racl('s, the unpoolcd and the poc^lcd, the latter hrinjiinji; tlu; 
higher price. 

The "standard " f^rade {)f li nil laiiks next. It has t he lij^htest 
sirup and consists of the iclali\'el.\' infeiioi- fruits in si/e, color, 
flavor, and texture. 

"Extra stantlard," "extra," and "fancy" are terms ap|)lie(i 
to fz;rades increasiuffly ^ood. If fruit.s ^rade liijih as to variety, 
color, size, flavor, texture, and arc packed in heav^- sirup, they 
will he graded as Fancy, and fruits less good will fall into the 
other group grades according to the degree in wliich they ap- 
proximate the grade called Fancy, and according to the weight 
of sirup used. That it is quite impossible under this system to 
depend on the term Fancy representing the same quality of 
fruit year after year is easily seen, for the crops yielded of various 
fruits are seldom of the same standard in successive years. The 
same is true of any grade. In a good year the trade known a,s 
Standard may prove better than the Extra Standard in a poor 
year. This makes for uncertainty on the part of the purchaser, 
and any buyer of large quantities of canned goods finds it nec- 
essary to see the contents of tins selected as samples and to order 
according to sample as well as by grade and trade name. The 
small buyer is at a great disadvantage in being unable to do 
this. 

The trade terms for grades of vegetables are in general the 
same as for fruits. The poorest of southern-grown produce and 
the trimmings of northern-grown are graded below standard. 
In tomatoes these sub-standard grades are sometimes known as 
"pulp" and "purde." In peas they are known as "seconds" 
and "soaked." This last term refers to peas that have grown 
too hard for canning purposes, l)ut have lieen soaked in water 
from twelve to thirty-six hours and then canned. 

Quality of canned goods. 

On opening the can the vohniic of the contents in i-elation 
to the capacity of the can should be noted. The contents should 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 449 

fill the can; any considerable space between the top of the can 
and the surface of the contents should count against the grade 
of the product. 

Any excess of liquid, that is, moi'e than is necessary to im- 
merse the solids, lowers the grade of the package. 

The presence of any foreign material such as drops of solder 
or bits of paper, which indicate careless methods in packing, 
should be looked for. 

Peas. — In canned peas, a very cloudy or starchy liquid prob- 
ably indicates that the peas have been "soaked." This would 
be confirmed by the peas being mealy, large, and with skins 
easily loosened in the can. Since peas are graded according to 
size, those known as "sifted," whatever the size, are higher in 
price than the unsifted, sometimes known as "the run of the 
garden." A large number of yellowish peas in a can indicates 
inferior quality and flavor. 

String beans.— The smaller string beans, less than two inches 
in length, are high priced and more decorative than nutritious. 
Those over three inches in length are coarse. Those between 
two and three inches are generally satisfactory. The "cut" 
beans ai'e cheaper but not uniformly good in flavor and texture. 

Lima beans. — The smaller lima beans, bush limas, are higher 
in price and generally of a better color than the large beans, 
pole limas. 

Cor7i. — Canned corn that is very milky or full of Hquid may 
be sweet, but it does not grade so high as the dry packs and 
does not keep so well. 

Okra. — Young okra is tender and the pods are canned whole. 
This brings a better price than the older pods which are cut 
before being packed. 

Spinach. — Good spinach is packed whole, that is, the leaves 
are not cut. The chopped packs lack the fresh flavor of the 
other and their quality is less certain. 

Tomatoes. — Tomatoes "hand packed" and "cold packed" 
are put whole into the cans while raw and steamed, so that they 
are cooked in their own juice. If any additional juice is re- 
quired to fill the crevices, it is supposed to be tomato juice. 



450 .1 .U.l.\7M/. or HOME M.\Kisa 

Toinalocs so packed aic -iipciinr to tliox' cooked before the 
cans are filletl, and will lie IoiiikI [tract ic;ill\' whole when the can 
i- opened. 

/'V(//7.s. -All laij^e I'niits aic inoi-e expensi\'e in tins than are 
small fruits, heeause the tins are more solidly filled with the 
latter and more portions can he ser\'e(l from a tin of given size. 
Of the lar}2;e fruits canned whole or in halves, neither the largest 
nor the smallest are the most ecftnoinical investment, hut rather 
the medium si7x>. This is heeause portions are made l)y the 
piece rather than the spoonful and the very large pieces are few 
to the tin, while the very small necessitate two or more pieces 
being served to the portion. Large fruits bought in the cut. 
form, for example, peach slices, peach chips, and pineapple 
chips, are most economical of all, for the same reason that small 
fruits are economical. 

Safe and unsafe tin cans. 

''Sanitary'^ cans. — Until the last few years it was the general 
custom to seal tin cans by soldering. It was inevitable that 
some small portion of the solder should be exposed to the action 
of the contents of the can, and frequently' drops of solder were 
lost among the contents of the can. The "sanitary" can is now 
used by the best packers. In this can the food is hermetically 
sealed without the use of solder by a clever mechanical device 
which folds and compresses the overlapping edges of the top and 
sides of the can. Such cans are stamped "Sanitaiy" on one 
end, and the consumer should discriminate in their favor for 
his own safety and to encourage the use of the best methods in 
packing. 

Lacqucr-lined cans. — To prevent the undesirable reaction be- 
tween acid fruits and vegetables and the metal of the cans, all 
tins em])lo3'e<I for packing foods of strongly acid character 
should l)c lacqucr-lined by a heat-resisting varnish. This is 
especially important since the cost of tin has advanced and the 
tin covering of sheet metal used for the manufacture of cans has 
become very thin. 

Rusted cans. — Cans rusted on the exleiioi' are not evidence 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 451 

of deteriorating contents, but cans rusted on the interior may 
have an undesirable effect on the food. Experience shows that 
soldered cans are often so rusted at the soldered end. 

^'Swells." — Imperfectly sterilized foods often produce gas, 
which bulges the ends of cans and sometimes causes the can to 
burst. This is more likely to occur in the case of those foods 
that contain the least acid and are most difficult to sterilize, 
such as corn. Reputable distributors will accept such goods, 
known as ''swells," if the swelling has occurred within a time 
limit set at the date of sale, and will reimburse the buyer to the 
amount of the bill. It is difficult for the small buyer to return 
such packages to the retail dealer for credit unless he can prove 
that he has had the goods but a short time and has kept them in 
a cool place. Quantities of swelled cans are returned constantly 
to packers and distributors, and unscrupulous handlers of such 
goods are known to have returned them to the market by the 
process of puncturing the can along the side to allow the escape 
of gas, then re-heating, re-sealing, and re-labeling. Such prac- 
tice may be detected on opening the can by the presence of the 
punctured and soldered spot. Needless to say the use of food 
so processed is most unsafe. 

Labels and trade names or brands. 

The interests of the consumer necessitate that the label 
shall declare the name of the packing company, the place of 
packing, the weight of contents, the amount of liquid, the me- 
dium of the pack (water or sirup), the grade of the product, 
and the name and address of the distributors or jobbers. All 
this should appear whether the goods are packed in the state 
where they are sold or in another state. The date when packed 
should be stamped in the tin, as the word ''sanitary" now is in 
some cans. 

In order that the statement regarding grade of goods may not 
be misleading, it is necessary that trade names of grades have 
uniform significance for packers and that the use of the uni- 
form grading methods and nomenclature be required by law. 
At present only experience enables one to know just how good 



l.")'-' .1 M.WI AL or HOME M \KI\(; 

is till' '"best" Kiailc ol any Kivon packer's product. All "Ixist" 
grades arc not now by any means (Hiual. If the definitions of the 
Krados are printed in fine type on tlie lahel, it is helpful tf) the 
buyer. The constnnei' niifiht be aided furtiier by the color of 
the lal)el declaring the f^radc of the i)ackaKe contents. Thus a 
white label niisht be used for products of the highest grade, and 
rod, blue, green, yellow in the order of decreasing c|uality. The 
business of deterniining grades would necessarily be an annual 
matter, and could probably best be done by a joint-connnittee 
representing the producers, the packing interests, and the 
Federal government. 

Quantittj value. 

Among dealers the sizes of packages of canned goods are 
designated by terms that refer to weight expres.sed in pounds. 
The common sizes or capacities are 1, 2, 23^, 3, and 10 pounds, 
and are briefly designated as Is, 2s, 2} ^s, 3s, and 10s. Doubtless 
at some time in the past the packages contained the weight of 
food indicated by the numerals assigned to the cans. But keen 
competition and the demand for low-priced articles have gradu- 
ally shrunk the capacity of the cans, while the descriptive nu- 
merals have remained unchanged. Thus a can known as Xo. 2 
size maj' actually weigh 1 pound and 6 ounces. A Xo. 3 can 
generally weighs about 2 pounds and 8 ounces. A Xo. 10 can 
is above the average if it weighs 8 pounds. 

It may be that no harm is done to distributors and large 
buyers when every one understands the situation and no one 
is deceived. But the average retail buyer not only has not tliis 
knowledge of conditions but does not even know whether he is 
buying by weight or measure. To him canned peas are graded 
as 25-cent cans, 22-cent cans, 20-cent cans and 18-cent cans. 
When he chooses tlu^ larg(>r of two cans at the same price, he 
does not know whether it is the heavier can. If it is the heavier, 
he does not know until he opens it whether th(> extra weight is 
due to an excess of li(]uid, or solidity of pack, oi- excessive weight 
of tin can and sokler. Such buying is of course absurdly ex- 
travagant. 



MARKETING FOR THE HOUSEHOLD 



453 



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454 A M.wr.M. or HOME makisc 

SiKjycKtions far the consutnir. 

In l)uyiiij; cMiiiicd ^(kxIs, ono slimiM not diofj^c llic fans hc- 
causo of the pictures on tlie labels. 

One should not hesitate to recjuirc of llio dealer as much in- 
formation re^;ardin}i; th(» (|uantity and (lualily of canned food 
as repirdin^ a purchase of food in any other form. 

Influence should he u.sed to obtain legislation that will re- 
(luire uniform standards for all packers in all states; uniform 
laws regarding labeling for all packers in all states; and labels 
declaring accurately the quality and ([uantity of the contents 
of the can, and giving the weight of solid materials and the 
measure of liquid. 

References 
U. S. Dei)t. of Afir., Farmers' Bull., 203. 
U. S. Dept. of Afir., Bur. of Chein., Circ. 54, Analysi.s of Canned Peas and 

Beans. 
U. S. Dept. of Comineree and Lahor: Census Bull, on Manufactures, 1902. 

Bull. 61, Census of Manufactures, 1905. 



CHAPTER XIX 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 

By Flora Rose 

Only such directions for feeding the sick will be given as may 
be of service in minor illnesses treated without the advice of a 
physician or as may aid in carrying out the directions of a phy- 
sician in more serious illnesses. 

In all sickness the diet should be a matter of some considera- 
tion. A change from the comparative activity of health to the 
comparative passivity of most cases of sickness means in itself 
a readjustment of dietary habits. Many disorders are caused 
partly by diet and are in turn much affected by dietary changes. 
Colds, constipation, indigestion, and some cases of fever are of 
this nature. 

Sick persons need as much energy as well ones who live under 
the same conditions. Moreover, fever patients are using up 
considerably more energy than well persons. Nevertheless, 
at the beginning of any illness which may have been affected 
by food eaten, it is generally desirable to rest the digestive 
tract by a day or more of fasting and by several days of moder- 
ate diet. If there is prospect of a protracted illness, a fasting 
period is usually limited to one day. If the illness is brief and 
particularly if food aggravates it, the fasting period may be ex- 
tended over two or even three days, depending on the response 
and vigor of the patient. 

FLUID DIET 

Generally illness means that the body is below par and cannot 
stand the strain of even normal conditions. This necessitates 
reducing all kinds of work which the individual would normally 

455 



45G 



.1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKlXd 



do. The (lif^estivo origans, as well as other parts of the l)0(ly, 
must liavc lost. The food should therefore he rechiced in total 
aiuounl and should he (»f a kind that is readily digested arid 
al)soil»e(l. Foods in a fluid or soft condition meet this require- 
ment most .satisfactorily. They arc dilute and have a.s a rule a 
rather low food value. A fluid diet has in general a food value 
lower than actual body needs. This is desiral)le in most ca.se.s 
in which rest for the digestive organs is of prime imixjrtance. 
A fluid diet may be so constitutetl, however, as to meet actual 
food needs. The food value of the fluid diet must depend on 
the condition and needs of the patient. 



TABLE XXVI I.— Foods for a Fluid Diet 



Kind of food 



Broths, clear soups, beef tea . 



Beef juice. 
Milk 



Cereal gruels . 



Eggs. 



Qualifications as food 
for the sick 



.\greeable to taste, 
stitiiulatin);, com- 
forting. Good as 
carriers of extra nu- 
trition, .such as ce- 
reals and eggs. Low 
in food value. 

Easily digested pro- 
tein food. Expen- 
sive. 

Most valuable sick- 
room food. Ila.s all- 
round nutritive 
value. Is a good 
carrier of other nu- 
trients, such as eggs, 
cereals, sugar, cream 

Good when appetite 
and assimilation are 
poor. Rapidly di- 
gested and absorbed. 
Easily enriched. If 
cereal dextrinized, 
easy way of increas- 
ing nutritive value 
becau.se the amount 
of cereal in gruel 
can be increased. 



Valuable to increa.se 
nutritive value of 
otlier foods, such ns 
eggnoRs, egg witli 
fruit juice, egg with 
broth or gruel. A 
valuable all-round 
food. 



Proportions 
for making 



1 pound moat 
gives 3 3 cup juice 



1 ounce cereal to 
1 qt. water 

2 oxmces cereal to 
1 qt. water 

1 ounce cereal to 
1 qt. milk 

2 ounces cereal to 
1 qt. milk 

ounces dextrin- 
ized cereal to 1 
qt. water 

ounces dextrin- 
ized cereal to 1 
qt. milk 



Comparatire 
fuel value 



I cup givet 
23 calories 



1 cup gives 
50 calories 



1 cup gives 
130 calories 



1 cup gives 

25 calories 
1 cup gives 

.W calories 
1 cup gives 

175 calories 
1 cup gives 

200 calories 
1 cup gives 

OOO-SOO 

calories 
1 cup gives 

750-900 

calories 
1 egg gives 

GO to 100 

calories 
1 egg white 

gives 13 to 

14 calories 
1 egg yolk 

gives 77 to 

St> calories 



■ FOOD FOR THE SICK 457 

A typical meal plan for a temporary fluid diet having low food 
value. 

The following diet is low in calorie value and must be in- 
creased as soon as possible. Pood should be given every two 
hours. 

1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk or 3^ cup coffee with J^ 
cup milk. 

2nd meal: Fruit juice with egg (K cup fruit juice, 1 to 4 teaspoons sugar, 
1 egg white, 3^ cup water) . 

3rd meal : 1 cup broth or beef tea. 

4th meal: 1 cup cereal gruol made with milk. 

5th meal: 3-2 cup fruit juice diluted with 3-2 cup water. , 

6th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk. 

7th meal: 1 cup broth. 

8th meal: 3-2 cup milk mixed with 1 egg and sweetened with 1 teaspoon 
sugar. 

9th meal: 1 cup broth or beef tea. 

A typical meal plan for a fluid diet for a lasting illness. 

The following diet may be planned approximately to meet the 
food needs of the patient. If the illness is to be of long duration, 
this is necessary. Food should be given every two hours. 

1st meal: 1 cup cereal gruel made with milk. 
2nd meal: 1 cup cocoa or milk flavored with coffee. 
3rd meal: Albuminized fruit juice (3-^ cup fruit juice, 1 to 3 teaspoons 
sugar, 1 egg, 14 cup water). 

4th meal: Cream soup, with egg added. 

5th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel flavored with beef extract. 

6th meal: 1 cup milk flavored with orange juice, 

7th meal: 1 cup albuminized fruit juice. 

8th meal: 1 cup cereal gruel. 

9th meal: 1 eggnog. 

SOFT OR SEMI-SOLID DIET 

Many sick persons thrive better on a soft diet than on a 
fluid one. This is particularly true for those persons who dis- 
like milk. A soft diet is the first step after the fluid diet and 
may, if necessary, replace it. 

Foods for a soft or semi-solid diet are : Toast made with milk, 
cream, water, or beef juice; custards, whips, junket, gelatins, 



458 .1 .u.i.vr.w. or ii()\ir: makixc 

soft piiddiiifis; (»in('l('ts, soll-codUcd {•\n!;s; I li(H()im;lily ••ooked, 
.strained cereals. 

LKillT OK ('(JN'VALESCEXT IJIKT 

Lijilit diet should be f^iven in cDnvaloseenee ff)lIo\vinK the 
fluid and soft, diets, and in Ihosc^ cases not n(;edin^!; special 
dietary consideration. It is \hv. normal <lict for the passive 
condition of the resting or inactiv^e person. 'i1ie nature of the 
light tliet must depend on the nature of the (Usease and the 
vigor of the patient. In general tiie following food would be 
includ(Hl. 'J'hi-ee meals a day are given in a light diet. 

Foods for light diet are: Fruits: fruit juices or cooked fruits. 
Cereal foods: well-cooked cereals, strained if neces.sary; rice and 
macaroni; thin dry toast. Vegetal)les: fresh spinach; celery; 
strained peas; potatoes, baked, boiled, or mashed. In some 
cases vegetables must be omitted altogether, as in acute in- 
digestion; in others they should be included. P'ats: butter, 
thin cream. ISIeats: not more than one small serving a day of 
broiled chop or steak; meat l)roths. Milk: plain, in eggnog, 
in cream soups, in simple desserts. Eggs: .soft-cooked, omelets, 
souffles, cu.stards. Simple desserts; custards, junket, ice cream, 
gelatin desserts, cooked fruits or cereal puddings. 

CARE AND FEEDING FOR INCIPIENT COLDS 

If colds are recognized and treated at the very beginning, 
they may generally be controlled soon. They are most often 
the result of fatigue, overeating, and a run-down condition, 
and can be suppressed by rest and careful diet. As soon as a 
person feels any symptoms of cold, the following treatment is 
recommended : 

1. A mild calharlic. An cffoctive cathartic if taken on an empty stomach 
is composed of 1 .slightly rounding teaspoon of salt (7 grams), to 1 quart 
of water. The entire amount should be taken. On rising in the morning 
is the best time, .since the stomach is then normally empty. 

2. A period of fa sling. Eat no food except water and a little fruit juice 
for 24 hours, or until the cold has lieen broken. 

;}. Wnlrr. Drink }-^i gla.ss of water every hour or half hour during the 
day. A little lemon juice may make this ea.sier to drink. 



- FOOD FOR THE SICK 459 

4. Rest. Stay at home for at least 24 hours, and rest and sleep as much 
as possible during that time in a well-ventilated but comfortably warm 
room. Avoid drafts and changes in temperature. 

5. Food. When the cold begins to yield, as it will in most cases in 12 to 
24 hours, break the fast with a light meal of milk toast. Begin then with 
a light laxative diet of low fuel value. Fruits and mild vegetables, fruit 
juices, crisp toast, and well-cooked cereals, lightly cooked eggs, milk, milk 
soups or gruels. 

CARE AND FEEDING FOR CONSTIPATION 

Many serious illnesses may be caused by chronic constipa- 
tion. Liver, kidneys, pancreas, and even the heart may be- 
.come damaged by continued absorption of the poisonous prod- 
ucts of a clogged intestine. It is always dangerous to allow 
a chronic condition to become established in which day after 
day intestinal wastes accumulate. They may ferment or putrefy 
and produce poisons which damage the body seriously. 

Use of drugs. 

Whereas it is probably better to empty the intestines with 
some medicine rather than to retain the waste material, this is 
nevertheless a poor makeshift. The continued use of laxative 
drugs is certainly not advisable. If a person suffers from chronic 
constipation, every effort should be made to locate the cause and 
to correct the difficulty. The cathartic should be used as an 
emergency measure only. 

Use of salt water. 

Perhaps the simplest and least harmful way of cleaning out 
the intestine of an adult is by the use of what is known as a 
physiological salt solution — 1 slightly rounding teaspoon of 
salt (7 grams) to 1 quart of warm water. The entire quart 
may be necessary, and it should be taken on an empty stomach. 
One-half hour or more before breakfast satisfies this condition. 
Slightly more or less salt may be needed in some cases to make 
this solution effective. 

Causes of constipation. 

Constipation is in many cases due to the following conditions: 



4(i() .1 .\/.l.\/ .1/. or HOME MM<I\<; 

failure to cstaMisli icmilaiity in ciiiiilyiii^ (he iiitcstincs; lack 
of propiT cxcicisc; wroii^; did ; and insMlIicicnl water. Its euro, 
in tliesc cases, must Ix;: taking time to cultivate tlie habit of 
enii)tyin{i; the intestine at a regular li(jur each day; exercising 
in such a way as to strenp;then the ahdoniinal muscles (rapid 
walking; is p;ood foi- this); following; a hixalive diet; drinking 
more water. 

Laxative foods. 

Laxative foods include most fruits ;uid vegetables, and cereal 
foods and breatls containing the whole of the cereal grain. Bran 
is inadvisable if a finer meal will accomplish the result. Con- 
tinued use of over-coarse foods is unwise. 

Hygienic treatment and diet for constipation. 
The following treatment is recommended 1 for persons suffer- 
ing from constipation: 

Before breakfasl: On rising drink two glasses oi" water, or take the .salt 
solution suggested on page 459. Take light exercise for .several minutes to 
strengthen the abdominal muscles. 

Breakfast: Stewed prunes, or figs, or other fruit; oatmeal, or other whole 
cereal, and milk; eggs, if desired; graham, or whole wheat, or oatmeal 
bread; water to drink, if desired. 

Between breakfast and lunch or dinner: Soon after breakfast make the 
beginning of establishing the habit of emptying the intestines daily at 
this hour. Allow 20 to 30 minutes for this purpose, if necessary. Drink 
one or two glasses of water. Take a Ijrisk walk. 

Dinner: Meat, or meat sul)stitute; potatoes; a liberal serving of boiled 
onions or cabbage or some succulent vegetable; bread made from whole- 
cereal meal; two glasses of water to drink; stewed fruit or graham pudding 
or some fruit dessert. 

Between dinner and supper: Drink one or two glasses of water; take some 
brisk exercise; if hungry, cat some fruit but nothing else. 

Lunch or supper: Macaroni and cheese or a cream soup or similar dish; 
some coarse bread; fruit salad; oatmeal cookies; two glasses of water to 
drink. 

After supper: Allow a short period of brisk exercise; eat an apple, orange, 
or other fruit, if hungry, but no other food; drink one glass of water during 
the evening. 



- FOOD FOR THE SICK 461 

DIET DURING A CONDITION OF INTESTINAL PUTREFACTION 

A number of causes may contribute to a condition of intes- 
tinal putrefaction. It is generally, though not always, associ- 
ated with constipation. Since putrefaction means decomposi- 
tion of the proteins and the consequent production of abnormal, 
easily absorbed, but detrimental, products, efforts should be 
made to conquer the condition as soon as possible. 

The diet must be regulated to eliminate a part of the total 
protein but particularly to reduce those proteins most subject 
to putrefation, namely, meat and eggs. The animal protein 
included may be in the form of milk or mild American (Cheddar) 
cheese. Foods that check putrefaction by fermenting slightly 
should be given. These are in general, fruits and vegetables. 
If constipation exists, it must be corrected. Drinking water 
liberally helps to reduce intestinal putrefaction. If the condi- 
tion is acute, a day of fasting, with salt solution (page 459) 
to cleanse the intestine, followed by a light laxative diet with 
eggs or meat eliminated, may be advisable. 

CARE AND DIET FOR INDIGESTION 

By indigestion is meant a more or less acute irritation of the 
digestive tract. It may be caused by fatigue, worry, rapid eat- 
ing, wrong foods, too much food, badly prepared foods, too little 
exercise, overwork, eating when weary, or a run-down condition. 
Its treatment consists in eliminating the cause and relieving 
the difficulty. 

Rest of body, mind, and digestive tract are often necessary. 
A moderate amount of outdoor exercise, combined with changes 
in diet, improvement in sleeping hours, and proper regulation of 
all habits is important in helping to overcome indigestion. 

If indigestion is chronic, the meals should be limited to three 
simple, easily digested meals daily (see light diet, page 458), and 
nothing eaten between meals. Any habit of constipation must 
be corrected by right regulation of diet. Fatty and over-sweet 
foods must be avoided and one should determine whether any 
special foods are causes of the difficulty, and avoid them. If 
indigestion is acute, to fast with complete rest for a day or two 



4(52 ,1 MA.\( AL or JlOMK MAKL\(J 

is th(^ best proccdiiii'. If ihis sccins a .severe program, small 
aiiioimis of fruit juice or clear meal lirotli may be used several 
times a (la>' dining this tiiue. When food is resumed, a limited 
fluid diet siiould he followed for two oi- three days (see fluid 
diet. paf>;e 455) and gradually chanKcd into a lif^ht tliet. Under- 
feeding should !)(• the lule until the digestive organs jiavo re- 
sumed their balance. 

DIET IN FEVER 

The old adage, "stufT a cold and starve a fever" has been 
completely reversed. Colds arc now starved, while fevers arc 
starved only long enough to rest the digestive organs. There- 
after effort is made to supply sufficient food to keep the body 
from any considerable loss of tissue. This is particularly well 
ilhistrated in the modern treatment for typhoid fever. 

General directions for feeding fever -patients. 

1. Rest tho (ligostive tract for a day or longer by a reduction of total 
food. Gradually increase the amount of food. 

2. At all times give onlj' tho.se foods which are readily digested and al)- 
sorbed. A fluid diet may be best. 

3. Give a small (juantity of liquid very frequently since thirst is great 
at this time and should be relieved. 

4. Give food in small quantities at frequent intervals, from \^2 to 2 
hours. The outline of a fluid diet of high fuel value (page 456) will give 
some idea of the needs of fever patients and ways of meeting these needs. 

Foods which may he used in fever. 

1. Milk may be used up to Ij^^ to 2 quarts a day. It may be modified 
by diluting it with water, or by adding cooked cereal, cream, milk-sugar, 
egg, or malted milk. Its taste may be modified by adiling I)eef extract, 
cocoa, coffee, or tea. 

2. Clear soups such as broths, beef tea, and beef juice may be used. 

3. Eggs. — Fresh eggs may be used up to 4 or sometimes 6 a day. They 
may be fed raw, in milk or fruit juice, or they may be very slightly cooked. 

4. Cream may l)e used in moderate quantities, and must be used with 
caution since fat is likely to overtax the digestive organs. 

5. Sugar. — The best sugar is milk-sugar, since it is only slightly sweet. 
Up to 6 or 8 ounces may be used daily. 

6. Cereals. — Well-cooked cereals may be steamed and given in milk as 
gruels. 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 463 

7. Soft, toast may be used in those cases in which difficulty is experienced 
with a fluid diet. 

Diet for typhoid fever. 

A diet high in fuel value is now used for typhoid patients, 
the condition of the patient governing the amount of food given. 
The following modified milk diets illustrate high calorie pos- 
sibilities of a simple fluid diet. 

Modified Milk Diets for Typhoid Fever * 

Calories 

For 1000 calories a day: 

Milk, 1000 c. c. (1 quart) 700 

Cream, 50 c. c. (1-2/3 oz.) 100 

Lactose, 50 gm. (1-2/3 oz.) 200 

This furnishes eight feedings, each containing: 

Milk, 120 c. c. (4 oz.) 80 

Cream, 8 gm. (2 dr.) 15 

Lactose, 6 gm. (1 J^ dr.) 24 

For 2000 calories a day: 

Milk, 1500 c. c. {VA quarts) 1000 

Cream, 240 c. c. (8 oz.) 500 

Lactose, 125 gm. (4 oz.) 500 

This furnishes seven feedings, each containing: 

Milk, 210 c. c. (7 oz.) 140 

Cream, 30 c. c. (1 oz.) 60 

Lactose, 18 gm. (4K dr.) 72 

For 3000 calories a day: 

Milk, 1500 c. c. (VA quarts) 1000 

Cream, 480 c. c. (1 pint) 1000 

Lactose, 250 gm. (8 oz.) 1000 

This furnishes eight feedings, each containing: 

Milk, 180 c. c. (6 oz.) 120 

Cream, 60 c. c. (2 oz.) 120 

Lactose, 30 gm. (1 oz.) 120 

FOOD FOR TUBERCULOSIS PATIENTS 

Tuberculosis is almost always accompanied by fever. Un- 
fortunately lack of appetite may be associated with the in- 
creased food need that is due to fever and wasting tissue. The 
problem is, therefore, threefold: (1) to increase the appetite 

* Coleman, American Journal of Medical Sciences, January, 1912. 



U'A A M.\.\( AL or HOME MAKISC 

hy fresh air ami mild exercise; (2) lo plan a diet uhicli is eiisily 
(lip;ost(Ml and which will meet the increased food needs at the 
same time; and (3) to huild the body by rest. Liberal use of 
milk, epjuis, cream, butter, p;reen vegetables, fruits, and whole 
cei-eal grains is desirable. Fats are especially needed, since 
they have a hi^h fuel value for a limited btilk. Cream, butter, 
whole-milk cheese, ve}i;et able oils, cod-liver oil, bactjn, and meat- 
fats of various kinds are useful. The real problem is to provide 
a temptin?;, well-balanced, high calorie, easily digested diet. 



CHAPTER XX 
BEVERAGES 

By Frances Vinton Ward 

Coffee and tea have no nutritive value aside from the cream 
and sugar that may be served in them as beverages. Cocoa 
and chocolate contain starch and fat and consequently are real 
foods; moreover, they are generally made with milk, which 
gives them added nutritive value. 

COFFEE 

The standard kinds of coffee include Mocha, Java, Mara- 
caibo, Santos, Rio, and Bogota. 

Adulteration. 

Adulterants are seldom found in coffee that is unground, or in 
the whole berry. Ground coffee is sometimes adulterated with 
cereal or chicory root. A mild coffee is impi'oved by the addi- 
tion of dried chicory root, roasted. Unadulterated ground 
coffee should be free from dust and chaff. When a teaspoon 
of ground coffee is stirred into a half glass of cold water, there 
should be little discoloration of the water and few grains should 
sink to the bottom. 

Care. 

Coffee gives best results when bought in the whole grain and 
ground just before using. If bought ground, it must be kept 
in an air-tight container which is never left with the cover off. 
To freshen a stale or weak coffee, the grounds should be stirred 
in a hot frying pan until they are well dried but not scorched. 

Composition. 

The substances found in coffee include : caffein, a mild stimu- 
lant; volatile oils, which give flavor and odor; coloring matter, 

465 



■U\i\ A MAMAl. or IK IMF. MAKISC 

(l('vcl()|H'(l in roaslinn; and lannin. pit-cni only in very small 
(luaiilitics, except in the cliaft'. 

Den l<t/)/ii( III iif Jhirors. 

liitterness is hioii^lit out l)>' hoilinti;. It is also (lepcndciit on 
the proportion of colTee used. The roasted flavor is hrou^ht 
out by fresh loastinj!; and (piiek niakinjz;. The aroma from the 
volatile oils is hroufj;ht out hy slow heating; without l>oilinj^ or 
the escape of steam. 

Directions for making. 

Weak, medium, or strong coffee may be made according to 
the following proportions: 

Weak roffcc: 1 level tal)lespoon of ground cofTee to 1 measuring-cup of 
water (3^ pint). 

Medium coffee: 1 rounding or 2 level tablespoons of ground coffee to 
1 measuring-cup of water. 

Strong coiTee: 3 level tablespoons of ground cofTee to 1 measuring-cup 
of water. 

Some of the more common methods of making coffee are as 
follows : 

1. Cold-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour the cojd 
water over the coffee, cover it carefully, and plug the spout. Heat the 
coffee very slowly to the boiling point, and txjil it gently for not more than 
3 minutes. Settle it by pouring in a little cold water slowly. Set the pot 
in a warm place for .8 minutes to allow the grounds to settle and the flavor 
to ripen. Serve the coffee without further dela\'. 

2. Ilot-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour boiling 
water over the cofTee and proceed as in the cold water process. 

3. Quick cold-water process. Use cofTee ground medium fine. Pour 
al)out one-fourth of the cold water over the coffee, heat it slowly to the 
boiling i)oint; then add the remainder of the water boiling hot, set the pot 
in a warm place for the flavor to ripen, and .serve the cofTee promptly after 
8 minutes. 

4. Large-quantity process. Tie the coffee, ground fine, loosely in a muslin 
bag, allowing space equal to the bulk of the cofTee for swelling. Drop the 
bag in the kettle of cold water, heat the water to the lioiling point, and 
boil it for not more than 3 minutes. Remove the l>ag, allow the cofTee to 
stand for 8 minutes, and serve it when needed. Be sure that the coffee 
does not boil while it is being kept hot, and that it is covered. 

5. Percolator process. Use j)owdered cofTee. Heat the water, jiour it 



BEVERAGES 467 

through the grounds in the percolator, and continue heating it for about 
5 minutes. Serve it at once. 

6. French drip coffee. Use powdered coffee. Pour the boiling water 
through the grounds, reheat the liquid, and pour it through a second time. 
If a very strong coffee is desired, this process may be repeated. 

7. Caf6 au lait (coffee with milk). Two methods are commonly used: 
(a) Use coffee ground very fine. Add cold milk instead of water. Heat it 
slowly to a temperature just under the boiling point, strain it, and serve 
it at once. Another method is: (b) Use coffee ground medium fine. Add 
one-fourth the usual amount of water. Heat this slowly to the boiling 
point, strain it, and add hot milk to make up the other three-fourths of 
liquid. 

8. Iced coffee. Make coffee by any of the methods suggested, pour it 
off the grounds at once, chill it, and serve it when desired. The best results 
will be obtained from cafe au lait poured over chopped ice. 

Clearing the liquid. 

It is necessary to clear the liquid only when the grounds are 
steeped in the water loose, not inclosed in a bag. The following 
methods may be used: 

1. Egg-white: (a) Add an egg-white to the dry grounds; stir the mixture 
well. Use the cold-water or the quick cold-water method of brewing. Add 
a beaten egg-white to a pound of freshly ground coffee, mix it well, spread it 
out to dry; then put it in a tight container till it is used. This treatment 
will also aid in preserving the strength of the coffee. Use the straight cold- 
water process for this coffee, and soak the grounds for a few minutes in 
the water first if possible. Coffee so prepared should never be put in a 
percolator, since it clogs the sieve. Strength of flavor cannot be obtained 
if the hot-water method is used, (c) Add 1 raw eggshell to each pint of 
water, and make coffee by the cold-water process. 

2. Sifting. A coffee which gives much trouble from muddiness may be 
sifted dry through a strainer, the coarse part used for boiled coffee and 
the fine part for drip or percolator coffee. 

3. Cold water. Remove the coffee from the fire as soon as it is cooked; 
pour slowly into it a small quantity of cold water, not more than J^ cup to 
2 cups of the beverage, and set it aside to settle. 

4. Hot coffee. Pour out a little of the coffee into a cup; return the clear 
part of this to the pot through the spout. Repeat this process two or 
three times till no grounds appear in the cup. Allow it to stand for a few 
minutes to settle. 

Coffee-pots and their care. 

Pots for boiled coffee are best made of agate or aluminum. 
Tin pots of good quality give satisfaction until the tin wears 



408 



A M.WIM. OF HOME M.\KI\(! 



olT oil 1 he inside. An .•iliiinimim pot is the most duniblc. Af^ate 
pots should he hoilcd in a sofIa solution onco a week ancl tin 
or aluminum pots in mild soapsuds; any scams (jr Kroovcs 
siiould l)(' carcfull.N- \vi|)cd afterward, and a rag string run through 
the spout. ■' 

TEA 

Teas ma.y be classified as follows: 1. Black tea: tea that has 
been fermented in the process of drying; it is supposed to con- 
tain less active tannin than green tea. 2. (Jolong: tea that 
has been partly fermented in drying and is midway in color and 
quality between black and green tea. 3. Green tea: tea that 
has been promptly dried with care taken to preserve the natural 
green color. This tea is supposed to contain more active tannin 
than do the other varieties. Formerly it was sometimes colored 
with copper. 

The best kno\vn kinds of tea are given in the following classi- 
fication : 



From China 
1 



From Imlin 

1. Black 

a. Assam 

b. Darjiling 

2. Green 
From Ceylon 

1. Black 

2. Green 



From Japan 
Green 

a. Pan-fired 

b. Baskot-fired 

From Formosa 



Green 

a. Gunpowder 

b. Imperial 

c. Young hyson 

d. Hy.son 

2. Black 1. Black Oolong 

a. Congou 

b. Souchong 

c. Scented 

3. Oolong 

Grades. 

There arc six grades of tea, standardized as follows: 

1. Flowery pekoe: tip of the stem and buds. This grade 

seldom reaches this country. 2. Orange pekoe: first open leaf. 

3. Pekoe: second leaf. 4. First souchong: third leaf. 5. Second 

Souchong: fourth Uvif. (>. Congou: fifth leaf. 

How to judge tea leaves. 

Dry fresh tea leaves should l)e free from dust, broken bits, 



BEVERAGES 469 

and stems. When the leaves are steeped, they may be judged 
by their size; the smaller leaves are best. Tea that consists of 
leaves that are very much broken, or that has many stems or 
midribs in proportion to the remainder of the leaf, is of low 
grade. However, tea containing many midribs may be satis- 
factory and inexpensive. 

Storage. 

The container used for tea should be of metal or glass, and 
should be air and water-tight. 

Composition. 

Tea contains: tannin, a bitter astringent substance; aromatic 
oils, substances that furnish the spicy taste and odor; and thein, 
(caffein), a mild stimulant. 

, Directions for brewing. 

The aims in properly brewing tea are: 1. To extract the aro- 
matic oils but to prevent their escape from the liquid. The best 
temperature for this result is just under the boiling point; the 
best time, 3 minutes. 2. To extract the thein. The best tem- 
perature is just under the boiling point. 3. To prevent the ex- 
traction of tannin. Tannin is extracted by boiling or by con- 
tinued steeping (over 3 minutes) . 

One level teaspoon of tea should be used for each cup of 
water. Any of the following methods may be used : 

1. Heat the teapot, drop into it the tea, and pour the freshly boihng 
water over this. Steep the tea in a warm place for just 3 minutes; do not 
allow it to boil. Pour the beverage off the grounds immediately, and serve 
it hot. A tea-cosy, or quilted cover which fits the teapot, helps to keep 
the tea hot. 

2. Place the tea in a large tea-ball or tie it in a muslin bag. Put this 
in the pot, and proceed according to Method 1. Remove the ball at the 
end of 3 minutes. 

3. Place 3^ teaspoon of tea in a silver tea-ball, previously heated. Lay 
this in a serving cup, and pour boiling water over it. Steep it for just 3 
minutes; then remove the ball. Replace the leaves with fresh ones before 
brewing a second cup. This method is generally unsatisfactory from the 
standpoint of quality. 



•170 A M.WIAL or iioMi: \] \KI\'r. 

I. l{iissi:m tea, for serving a larnc (luaiitily. Measure out the t4'a in 
tlie pniporlifiu of 1 cup to sixty scrviriKs. Pour over this in a hot rovcrcd 
kettle ;{ (luarts of hoilinji; water, and steep the tea for 'A minutes. I'our (he 
liciuid olT tlie leaves, set it in a warm place, and dilute it its norded, usiriR 
one part of tea to three parts of hot water. 

T). Iced tea. .\ny of the following methods may he used: (a) lirew fresh 
tea usinn more tea in proportion to water than for hot tea. Fill fumlilers 
half full of cracked ice, place a slice of lemon and 2 leaspof)ns of su^ar on 
top, and j)ovn' the hot tea over this. Serve the tea as .soon a.s it i.s chilled. 
(I)) Cool tea, and chill it either l)y the addition of cracked ice or by placing 
it wliere it will he cold. Di.s.solva' the suyar in the tea l)efore cooling it, 
or add a siru]). (c) Pour cold water over the tea leaves, and let them sriak 
for several hours. 

6. Tea punch. Tea that is to l)e used as a foundation for fruit i)unch 
should be made in the proportion of 114 tea.spoons of tea to 1 cup of water. 
To make the punch, use cold tea in i)lace of one-fourth to one-half of the 
water, aecorilinf!; to the flavor desireil. The use of tea of approximately 
the .same color as the fruit juice is best; a dark tea may be used to color 
the h(iuid. Test the tea for clouding l)cforc using it. 

Clouding. 

Some teas, expeeially some black kinds, cloud on cooling 
and standing. Re-heating will clear them temjjorarily, but these 
teas ai-e not suited for serving as iced teas or in ])iuiches. To 
test a tea for clouding, it should Ije brewed and the liciuid allowed 
to stand overnight at room temperature. Clouding is not an 
indication of inferior quality. 

Points in judging the beverage. 

In judging tea, the color, the taste, the flavor, the pungency, 
and the body must be considered. 

Serving. 

Black tea is generally best suited for serving with cream and 
sugar because of its color and flavor. Green teas are generally 
served plain or with lemon and sugar. 

coco.\ 
Cocoa is foimd on the niai-kct in 1 he following forms: 1. Cocoa 
nibs: chocolate beans, ci-ackcd. "_*. ('Iiocolate cake: chocolate 



BEVERAGES 471 

beans ground fine and pressed. 3. Cocoa-shells: the thin 
inner shells of the cocoa bean, cracked off. Very little nutri- 
ment is contained in them. 4. Cocoa: chocolate from which 
some of the fat (cocoa butter) has been removed. 

Composition. 

Chocolate and cocoa contain fat, starch, tannin and theo- 
bromine, which is similar to caffein but much milder in its effects. 
The fat-content of chocolate is much higher than that of 
cocoa. 

Directions for making. 

1. Chocolate nibs: Use H cup of nibs to 3 cups of water. Pour the 
boihng water over the nibs, steep them gently, without boiling, for 2 hours. 
Strain the beverage, and serve it with cream and sugar. 

2. Cocoa-shells: Use from 3^ to 1 cup of shells to 4 cups of water. Sim- 
mer the mixture for 2 hours, strain it, and serve it with cream and sugar. 

3. Chocolate: Use ^2 ounce of chocolate, J^ cup of water, 3^ cup of milk, 
2 teaspoons of sugar, and salt. Melt the chocolate in a double boiler, add 
the sugar, the salt and the water. Heat the mixture to the boiling point, 
letting it bubble well. Add the milk, and set it in the double boiler to 
heat. When it is hot, beat it with an egg-beater till the top is covered with 
a fine froth. This will prevent the formation of a film. To make a some- 
what heavier beverage, add from J^ to 1 teaspoon of cornstarch mixed 
with the sugar. 

4. Cocoa, (a) Thin cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of 
sugar, salt, and add 3^ cup of hot water, stirring the mixture to a smooth 
paste. Boil the mixture at least two minutes. Add J^ cup of milk, and 
heat the mixture in a double boiler. Beat it with a Dover egg-beater till 
the top is covered with fine bubbles, to prevent the formation of a film, 
(b) Thickened cocoa. Mix 2 teaspoons of cocoa, 2 teaspoons of sugar, 
salt, }/2 teaspoon of cornstarch, a little cinnamon, and 3^ cup of water, 
stirring the mixture to a smooth paste. Boil it till it thickens, add J^ cup 
milk, and place the mixture in a double boiler to heat. Beat it with an 
egg-beater to prevent the formation of a film, (c) Cocoa paste (prepared 
cocoa.) Mix 2 cups of cocoa, 3 cups of sugar, and 3 cups of hot water, 
and stir this to a smooth paste. Place the mixture in a double boiler, and 
simmer it for 2 hours. Keep the paste in a cool place and use it as needed. 
To use the paste, heat 1 cup of milk in a double boiler, and stir into it 1 
tablespoon of the paste, (d) Iced chocolate and cocoa. Chill cocoa, and 
pour it over cracked ice in tumblers. Serve it with whipped cream on 
top. 



472 .1 M.WI AL (fF HOME M.\KI\<; 

I'urn- .HICKS 

]\\ MiKIAM I'lUDSKVK 

The principal cliaiiii of a liuit diiiik lies in (he siiiootli hlond 
injz; of the various lla\ors. I'lilcss the fruil juices have hccii 
well swoelciu'd Ix'foro hotllinji; {pa^o Oil)), llic uocdcd sufiar 
should 1)0 su|)i)lied in tlie fonn of a suji;ar sirup; otherwise tlie 
juices and the sugar must he mixed and allowed to stand to- 
Sother for several hours before beinK served. For the sirup, 
1 cupful of sugar should he allowed foi- each cupful of water, 
and the mixture boiled for about 10 minutes. It saves time and 
fuel to make a quart or so of this sirup at a time and bottle it 
boiling hot in sterilized pint jars for suljsequcnt u.'^e. 

A small amount of some strongly acid juice should always be 
added to the fruit drink to give it the proper degree of acidity. 
The juice of rhubarb or barberries is sufficienth^ sour to take 
the place of lemon juice for this purpose. Orange juice may be 
substituted for lemon juice by adding to it a small quantity 
of cider vin(\gar. 

Enough of the sugar sirup should be added to the fruit juices 
to sweeten them, enough acid juice to contribute the desired 
zest, and the whok^ diluted to taste with shaved ice or with ice 
water. 

Green tea makes a good foundation for a fruit punch. 

Well-scrubbed skins of pineapples, oranges, and lemons may 
be covered with water, a little sugar added, and the mixture 
allowed to stand for several hours to draw f)ut the flavoring 
matter. This thin juice may be u.sed immediately to make 
fruit drinks. 



CHAPTER XXI 

BATTERS AND DOUGHS 

By Mary F. Henry 

When flour and liquid are mixed in such proportions thab the 
resulting mixture can be beaten, it is called a batter. When the 
mixture is so thick that it cannot be beaten, but must be made 
smooth by kneading, it is called a dough. The essential in- 
gredients of batters and doughs are flour, liquid, and leavening. 
Shortening, eggs, sugar, and salt are not essential but they con- 
tribute to flavor and texture. "Light breads" can be made 
from wheat flour because it contains certain materials which 
when moistened form a sticky elastic substance called gluten. 
When a mixture containing gluten is heated, the moisture and 
the air which may be incorpoiated, expand and stretch the 
gluten. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the gluten 
hardens and forms a framework surrounding whatever other 
ingredients are contained in the loaf. However, it is not safe 
to rely solely on the expansion of the moisture or whatever air 
happens to be present in the mixture, either as the result of 
beating a plain batter or of adding well-beaten eggs. In most 
batters and doughs a gas which expands on heating is intro- 
duced by means of the growth of yeasts or by chemical leaven- 
ing agents. This gas acts more powerfully than does air or 
steam because it is more abundant. Yeast doughs are discussed 
in Chapter XXIV. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Pour hatters. — Mixtures of about equal parts of flour and 
liquid, such as those used in making popovers and pancakes, 
are called pour batters because they can be poured. 

Drop batters. — Mixtures of about two parts of flour to one 

473 



171 .1 l/.l \l AL or IloMi: M \KI\i; 

part n|' li(iiii(|. siirli as those iimm| foe iiiufliiis aii<l fakes, are 
('alie<| (Irop hatters, because llie\' drop from a spoon. 

Soft (loiKjhs. — Mixtures of about three parts of fitjur to dfio 
part of licjuid, sueli as biscuits, an^ called soft doughs. 

StijJ' floKfjhs. — Mixtures of about four parts of flour to one 
part of liquid, such as yeast bread, are called stiff doughs. (See 
Chapter XXIV.) 

INOREDIEXTS 

Flour. 

A good grade of flour should be used for all doughs and batters 
(p. 495). Pastry Hour is better than bread flour for (|uick- 
bread mixtures and cake, since it gives a more tender prtjduct 
than does bread flour. Pastry' flour may be made at home ac- 
cording to the suggestions on page 490. When other flours arc 
substituted for wheat flour in a recipe, it should be on the 
basis of weight, since there is much variation in measure. 

Liquid. 

Sweet or sour milk, sweet or sour buttermilk, sweet or sour 
cream, whey, molasses, wat(M', j)()tato water, rice water, and 
various other iicjuids may be used in doughs and batters. Sour 
milk, sour cream, sour buttermilk, whe}', and molasses require 
soda to neuti'alize their acid (p. 475). Sour milk gives a texture 
that is slightly more tender than that produced with sweet 
milk. Both eggs and fat serve as part of the li(iuid. An average- 
sized egg may be regarded as supplying two tablespoons of 
Uquid; fat may be regarded as entirely liquid. This fact must 
be taken into consideration if changes are made in a standard 
recipe. If cream is used, its fat-content must be considered 
(p. 477). 

Soda. 

When l)aking soda comes in contact with an acid in the pres- 
ence of moisture, it liberates a gas calleil carl)on dioxide. The 
acid may be ci'eam of tartar, or such acids as are contained in 
sour milk or molasses. The amount of soda to be used is de- 



■ BATTERS AND DOUGHS 475 

termined by the amount of sour milk used and its degree of 
acidit}^, and not by the amount of flour as is the case when 
baking powder is used. Soda may be added in two ways: (1) 
It may be stirred into the milk, in which case it does not act so 
decidedly as a leavening agent, but serves to sweeten the milk. 
In the process some of the gas is liberated and the leavening 
power is lost to such an extent that it generally becomes neces- 
sary to use baking powder as additional leavening agent. 
(2) The soda may be sifted with the flour, in which case the 
gas is liberated chiefly during the baking process. When it is 
added in this way, no additional baking powder is used if the 
milk is sufficiently sour to require soda in such amount as to 
give a proportion of 3^ teaspoon of soda to 1 cup of flour. 

No absolute statement can be made, however, as to the cor- 
rect amounts of soda to use, since sour milk and molasses differ 
greatly in their degree of acidity. In general it may be said that 
from ]4, to }/2 teaspoon of soda should be used for each cup of 
sour milk, and more nearly 3^ teaspoon should be used for each 
cup of molasses. Experience in cooking with sour milk and soda 
will best teach correct amounts to use. If soda is added to the 
milk, the taste may serve as a guide for determining correct 
amounts, a brackish taste indicating that too much soda has 
been used, a sour taste indicating that too little has been used. 
Tests may be made with red and blue litmus paper: if, after 
the soda has been added, blue litmus paper turns red, the 
amount of soda has been insufficient to neutralize the acid; if 
red litmus paper turns blue, too much has been added. If 
neither red nor blue litmus paper changes color, the acid of the 
milk has been just neutralized. 

Instead of using soda alone as a leavening agent when sour 
milk or molasses is used as the Hquid, some persons choose to 
use baking powder also in the proportion of 1 teaspoon of bak- 
ing powder to 1 cup of flour. This is advisable especially if the 
milk is only slightly sour, and the amount of soda required to 
neutralize the acid is not sufficient to furnish enough gas to 
make the mixture light. If eggs are used in the mixture, baking 
powder is not so necessary. 



•170 .1 MAMAL OF IIDME MAKlSd 

lidkiiKj powder. 

I>;ikiiiji; jjowdcr is a iiiixtuic of soda and an acid wliidi will 
yield a ^;as when li(|uid is added. The acid constituent varies 
witii tile type of the baking; powder. It may bo an acid tar- 
trate, a phosphate, or an aluminum salt. Most commercial 
hakinji; powders contain a third injiretlient, starch, which ab- 
sorbs moisture and so pi-events any premature n-action between 
the soda and the acid. All l)akinp; powders, whether home- 
made or commercial, should be kept in a closely covered 

Bakinj;; jiowder is generally used in a mixture in which sweet 
milk is used as the li(juid. Tv;o teaspoons of bakinf^ powder 
will leaven one cup of Hour if no eggs are used. If eggs are u.sed, 
the total amount of the baking powder may be decreased 3^ 
teaspoon for each egg used. 

It is possible to make baking powder at home by combining 
cream of tartar and soda in the correct proportions. It is not, 
however, entirely practicable, because of the difficulty in being 
accurate in measuring and thorough in mixing. The correct 
proportion, by measure, to coml)ine is 2}^^ parts of cream of 
tartar to 1 part of baking soda and }/2 part of cornstarch; or 
by weight, 2-/io parts of cream of tartar, to 1 part of soda and 
1^2 part of cornstarch. The ingredients should be very care- 
fully measured and thoroughly mixed by sifting. 

Yeast. 

Yeast is discussed under yeast breads, page 497. 

Eggs. 

Eggs give fimmess of texture, lightness, and richness to bat- 
ters and doughs. Also they act as a leavening agent by entrap- 
ping air as they are beaten. When heated, the albumen, like the 
gluten of wheat flour, hardens and helps to form a framework 
to hold up the other ingredients. The tendency is opposite 
to that of fat, since eggs tend to bind together the ingredients, 
and fat tends to separate them. Preserved eggs that have a 
good flavor and odor vaay be used. One egg may be considered 



BATTERS AND DOUGHS 477 

the equivalent of 3^ teaspoon of baking powder in leavening 
power. 

Shortening. 

Fats, such as butter, butter substitutes, lard, lard substitutes, 
tried-out meat fats, chicken fat, and olive and cottonseed oils, 
are used for shortening. Fat makes the texture of batters and 
doughs more close-grained and more tender than they would 
otherwise be. It also improves the flavor in most cases. Mut- 
ton fat may be used satisfactorily under certain conditions 
(page 521). Fat necessitates the use of more leavening, since 
it oils the particles of flour and makes it easy for the gas to 
escape. A cake made with a small amount of fat will be porous 
and will dry out quickly. Too much fat will make the cake 
heavy and cause it to crumble. If melted fat is added to a cake 
batter, it should not be hot, since hot fat is likely to make a cake 
tough, coarse-grained, and heavy. 

Since fats vary in their water-content, proper substitution 
cannot be made by using equivalent amounts. 

One cup of butter is equivalent to : 1 cup of lard or lard sub- 
stitute minus 2 tablespoons; 1 cup of chicken fat; 1 cup of 
cottonseed or olive oil minus 2 tablespoons. 

If cream is used in place of milk, the fat-content must be 
allowed for in measuring the shortening. One cup of 18 per cent 
cream is equivalent to ^ cup of milk plus 33-^ tablespoons of 
fat. One cup of 40 per cent cream is equivalent to 3^ cup of 
milk plus 73^ tablespoons of fat. 

Sugar. 

Sugar gives flavor to a mixture. It also acts as a liquid. A 
fine granulated sugar gives a better texture than does a coarse 
sugar. Powdered sugar is sometimes used for a very close- 
grained cake. If either powdered or brown sugar is used in 
place of granulated, the substitution should be made by weight, 
not measure. Molasses is used in some recipes for part of the 
sugar as well as part of the Hquid. Corn sirup may be used in 
the same way; however, to give sufficient sweetness it should 



•ITS A MAM AL OF lUiME MAKISC 

Kcncnilly he coiiihiiicd with some sujjar or niolassos. Too 
inuch simai- results in a heavy, eoarse-^raiiK^d texture, or a 
jz;iimin\' i)i(t(hi(i . 

.MKTHODS OF MIXING 

The iiicihod of coinhiiiiiiK the infj;re(lieiils in Hour mixtures is 
detennined somewhat liy the iri^^redieMts, and there is no hard 
and fast rule to he followed. However, experience has shown 
that I he lullowiii^- methods give j^ood results: 

Method of niixituj batters. 

The following method may he used in making giiddle cakes, 
popovers, and muffins. Even cake may he mixed in this way 
with excellent results. 1. Mix and sift the dry ingredients. 
2. Adtl the milk to the heaten egg, and stir this mixture into 
the dry ingredients. 3. Add the melted butter and beat the 
mixture well. 

Method of miximj doughs. 

Biscuits and pie crust are best made by the following method : 

1. Mix and sift the dry ingi-edients. 2. Cut the shortening 

into the dry materials with two knives, or mix it lightly with 

the finger tips. 3. Add the litiuid, mixing it in with the knives 

and stirring the mixture as little as possible. 

Method of mixing cakes. 

Cake is generally mixed i)y the following method, if a cake- 
mixer is not used. 

1. Sift together the flour, the baking powdei-, and the salt. 
2. Work the butter with a spoon until it becomes soft and 
creamy. 3. Add the sugar gradually, creaming it with the 
butter. 4. Add the well-beaten egg-yolks. 5. Add the milk 
and the flour in thirds or fourths, alternately. 6. Fold in the 
wcll-beaten egg-whites. 

UTENSILS FOR HA KING 

Kinds. 

Popovci's are best if l)aked in iron or liottery. Tin may be 
used, but it is not so satisfactory. Iron baking pans should be 
heated before the batter is poured into them. 



- BATTERS AND DOUGHS 479 

Muffins may be baked in either iron or tin baking pans. 

Cake is best baked in tins. The tube pan allows a current 
of hot air to rise through the center of the cake, and hence pro- 
motes even baking. A broad, shallow pan generally gives a 
lighter, drier cake than does a deep narrow pan. 

Biscuits may be baked on tin or on Russia iron sheets. 

Preyaraiion. 

The baking pans should be greased before the ingredients are 
combined. The fat should be melted, and applied to the pans 
with a soft piece of paper, a swab, or a brush kept for the pur- 
pose. The product may often be prevented from sticking by 
lightly sprinkling the greased pan with flour, inverting it, and 
tapping it to remove any excess. 

FILLING THE PANS 

A pan should never be filled more than two-thirds full of 
batter. When a cake batter is put into the pan, it should be 
brought up against the sides by using a spoon or spatula, so that 
before baking the center of the cake may be lower than the 
sides. 

BAKING 

The pan should be placed on the lower grate of the gas-oven 
and on the floor of the oven of a coal range so that the greatest 
amount of heat will reach it from underneath and force it to 
rise to its fullest capacity before the crust is formed on top. 

The oven door should not be opened during the first ten 
minutes of the baking process. When it is opened, it should be 
closed gently, since a sudden jar or draft may cause the mixture 
to fall. If a mixture is baking unevenly, it may be turned in 
the oven before the top crust begins to harden; if it is turned 
after the crust is formed, the cake may fall and will not rise 
again. 

The stages in baking are as follows: The mixture begins to 
rise; it continues to rise and begins to brown in spots; it rises 
in the center and browns over the top; it settles to a level and 
shrinks from the sides of the pan. 



480 



.1 MAM AL (H' IIOMH ,\/.lA7\Y/ 



Oven lavpcrdliins. 

A correct oven tcin|H;raturc is very iinpcMtaiit in hakiii^^. Tlio 
correct temperature dcpeiids on the size of the loaf and the con- 
stituents us(>d in the niixlurc. 

'Vhv followinjj; classification ol temperatures for baking; vari- 
ous mixtures is suggested: * 

1. Slow oven ('250° to 350° F.), for custards and nicrinKuos. 

2. Moderate oven (350° to 400° V.), for broad, ginncrhread, |)lain cake, 
cookies, all molasses mixtures. 

3. Hot oven (400° to 450° F.), for Parkerhouse rolls, and popovers. In 
baking poj)overs, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first 
ten minutes. 

4. Very hot oven (450° to 550° F.), for pastry. After the first six min- 
utes the temperature should bo lowered to "hot." 

Sponge cake should ho baked in an oven with a temperature 
between "slow" and "moderate." 

leaking powder biscuits should be baked in an oven with a 
temperature between "hot" and "very hot." 

The following tests for oven temperatures may be used: 
1. When glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes 

TABLE XXVIII. — TiME-T.\BLE for B.xkixc Batters and Doughs 



Mixture 



Biscuits, baking powder or soda . 

Rolls, raised 

Bread, yeast 

Cake, layer 

Cake, loaf 

Cookies 

Corn cake, thick 

Muffins, baking powder 

Popovers 

Tarts 

Pies 



Time required 
(minutes) 



10 to 15 
10 to 20 
45 to 60 
15 to 30 
35 to GO 
5 to 10 
30 to 40 
20 to 25 
40 to 50 
10 to 12 
30 to 60 



* May B. Van Arsdale. Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Tompera- 
atures for Cookery Procos.ses, Tech. Education Bull. 22, pubUshod by 
Teachers College, Columbia Univ. 



. BATTERS AND DOUGHS 481 

brown in five minutes, the oven is moderate (350° to 400° F.) ; 
2. when glazed white paper placed in an oven becomes dark 
brown in five minutes, the oven is hot; 3. experience will make 
the hand a fairly reliable tester for oven temperatures; 4. an 
oven thermometer is essential in learning to bake with the mini- 
mum of failures. 

Tests for determining when breads and cakes are done. 

Any of the following tests may be used to determine when a 
mixture is done: 1. When the color is a rich golden brown; 2. 
when the mixture shrinks away from the sides of the pan; 3. 
when the sides of the pan sizzle when touched with a damp 
finger; 4. when a clean toothpick inserted comes out free from 
any particles of the mixture; 5. when a cake springs back if 
pressed gently on top. 



482 



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CHAPTER XXII 

CAKES 

Cakes may be divided into three classes: cakes made with 
yeast, sponge cakes, and butter cakes, or cakes made with 
shortening. 

CAKES MADE WITH YEAST 

The points which are essential for success in bread-making 
(page 495) should l^e observed in mixing cakes lightened with 
yeast. Since sugar, butter, and eggs have a tendency to retard 
fermentation, they should be added either to the light sponge 
or to the light dough. Brioche and raised doughnuts are ex- 
amples of cakes made with yeast. 

SPONGE CAKES 

Sponge cakes are really a variation of a souffle or puffy ome- 
let. They are made without fat. They may be leavened with 
eggs alone, or with baking powder and eggs. Plain sponge 
cakes, choux paste, lady-fingers, macaroons and meringues are 
examples of this type of cake. Sponge cakes should never be 
cut with a knife. They should be broken or separated with 
two forks by placing the backs of the tines together and gently 
pulling the cake apart. 

Method of mixing. 

(1) Separate the whites of the eggs from the yolks; (2) beat the yolks 
until they are thick and lemon-colored, scraping them down from the sides 
with a spatula to prevent their drying on the bowl; (3) add the sifted sugar 
gradually, l>eating the mixture constantly; (4) add the flavoring, if it is to 
be used; (5) beat the whites until they will stay in the bowl when it is 
inverted, that is, until they are stiff but not dry; (6) fold the whites quickly 
into the first mixture, until they are not visible in large amounts; (7) sift 
the salt and the flour several times. If baking powder is used, sift it with 
the flour and the salt; (S) fold the dry ingredients carefully into the mix- 

483 



•ISI ,1 M.WIM. or IIOMK MAKlXa 

turo. It should iiol !"• Itc;ilcii, hccaus*' the :iir l)ul)bl('.s that make tho cake 
linht may thus he hroki-ii, hut it should he rut and folded until no dry 
flour is visihle. 

]\I( llioil (if hiiLi'mi. 

'i'lic pans for s|)()iifj;(* cake s1k)u1(I he perfectly clean. Thoy 
should not be greased. The pans should he filled aeeorduig to 
tho directions on page 479. Sponge cakes should be baked in a 
slow oven from 1 to 1^2 hours. When the cake is done it will 
i)egin to shrink from the sides of the [lan, and it will rebound 
when pressed lightly on top with the finger. Sponge cakes 
should not be removed from the pan until cokl. The pan should 
be inverted on a cake-rack and the cake should be allowed to 
cool gradually in a place that is free from a draft. 

BUTTER CAKES 

Recipes for butter cakes call .for various proportions of ma- 
terials. Results produced by such variations are discussed 
bi'iefly on pages 474 to 477. With a fair understanding of the 
possil)ilities of substituting one material for another, cake re- 
cipes may be varied to make the best use of the materials on 
hand or to produce the desired result in lightness or richness. 
Formulas that are good to use as a basis for substitution are 
given on page 482. Because of the difference in grades of flour, 
it is difficult to give the exact amount of flour required to pro- 
duce the best result. Butter cakes include cup cakes, pound 
cakes, cookies, and wafers. They may be plain or may contain 
fruit or nuts. Directions for mixing and baking l)utter cakes 
are given on pages 478 and 470. Directions for fiUing the pans 
are given on page 479. 

INGREDIENTS USED IN C.^KES 

A discussion of the essential materials used in cakes is given 
on pages 474 to 477. Following are suggestions on certain ac- 
cessory materials.* 

* Mills, Katheriiic II. Making Cake. Part I. Cornell Heading-Course 
for the Farm Home, Hull. 7.'i. 



CAKES 485 

Several types of fruit are commonly used in making cake; 
first, dried fruits and candied fruits, such as currants, raisins, 
citron, cherries, pineapple; second, fresh raw fruits, such as 
blueberries, and cherries; third, cooked fruit pulp, such as apple- 
sauce and blackberry jam. As a general rule it may be said that 
when fruit is used in making cake, tfie batter will need to be 
stiffer than for ordinary cake, the stiffness depending on the 
weight of the pieces of the fruit to be held in place. A 
cake dough containing raisins will need to be stiffer than one 
containing blueberries, and a cake dough containing blueberries 
will need to be stiffer than one made with apple-sauce or jam. 
The presence of particles of dried fruit increases the difficulties 
in baking cake, as fruit scorches easily and some of the fruit 
will be at the surface of the cake. Rich fruit cakes should, 
therefore, be baked in a very slow oven. This not only prevents 
scorching, but also improves the flavor, since the fruit flavor 
blends with that of the other ingredients. 

Chocolate contains a hard fat which adds richness to cake, 
but which tends to make it stiff as it dries out or if the cake is 
kept in a very cold place. Chocolate cake that is made with 
sour milk and soda is usually softer and darker in color than 
that made with sweet milk and baking powder. Chocolate 
contains starch which thickens the batter, so that less flour is 
needed for chocolate cake than for white cake. Alkali darkens a 
chocolate mixture, and a little soda added to the melted choco- 
late before putting it into the batter will not only darken the 
cake, but also neutralize any free fatty acid in the chocolate 
and help to make the cake light. The large amount of soda in 
some recipes for chocolate cake serves the same purpose. 

Cocoa should be substituted for chocolate by weight instead 
of by measure. In manufacturing cocoa nearly all of the fat 
has been removed from it, so that cakes made by substituting 
cocoa in a recipe calUng for chocolate are Kkely to be bready 
unless a small quantity of additional fat is added (the equivalent 
of about }/2 tablespoonful of butter for each ounce, or }4 cup- 
ful, of cocoa used) . 

Nuts are lighter than fruit and are not likely to settle to the 



ISC) .1 M.wi \L or iKiMi: .u.i/v7.vr; 

holtoiii of the till', ihcictoir tlic\- do li(»l immmI lo he HoilICfl. 
They coiilain l';U , and, ulicii addcfl lo licli cake, the aiiKAiiit 
of fat in I lie i('ci|)(' should he dccicascd in proportion to the 
riclmcss added In* the mils. I'roin 1 lo \}> taWlcsjioonfuls less 
of fat to each cupful of nuts is usually sufliciont. A f^ood method 
of prcpaiiiiK nuts for cake is to {irind them through the coarse 
knife of tiie food choj)per. When I-Ji^li-'^'i walnuts or other 
nut meats are l)(nifj;ht already shelled, they should be washed and 
dried in the oven before beinj; used. 

Cakes made of f^ood materials recjuire no additional flavoring. 
If flavoriiifz; is desired, fresh fruit juices or other fre.sh flavors are 
l)referablc to conunercial extracts. 

CAKE FILLINGS 

A layer cake should l)e arranged if possible in such a way that 
the bottom of the laj^ers will receive the filling;, because the 
bottom is more porous than the top and consequently takes the 
filling better. I'illings may be classified as cream fillings, 
fruit fillings, and pastes. 

CAKE FROSTINGS 

A cake may be merely dusted over the top with powdered 
sugar and the layers put together with a cream filling. The 
sugar will stick to the cake better if the white of an egg or fruit 
jelly has been brushed over the top fii-st. Fruit or nuts, and 
sugar may be sprinkled over the top of a cake before it is baked. 

Frostings which are made of sugar and li(iuid and which com- 
pletely cover the surface of a cake, may be either cooked or 
uncooked. Various kinds of sugar may be used, antl nuts or 
fruit if desired. Uncooked frostings should be made of confec- 
tioner's sugar. The sugar should always be sifted. The rules 
for sugar cookery (page 570) should be followed in making 
cooked frosting. 

For cutting a frosted cake, a knife dipped in boiling water 
should ])e used in order to prevent breaking the frosting. 

In frosting a layer cake, it has been found helpful to pin a 
strij) of glazed paper about an inch higher than the cake around 



CAKES 487 

it. This will serve as a retainer when the frosting is poured on 
the cake. After the frosting has set, the strip of paper should 
be removed, using a thin-bladed knife that has been wet in 
hot water. 

Boiled frostings* 

In making boiled frosting, just as in making cake, it is 
possible to vary the amounts of ingredients used in propor- 
tion to the time of cooking. There are three ingredients 
essential to the making of any so-called boiled frosting, water, 
sugar, and white of egg. Cream of tartar may be used 
with good effect, for it gives the frosting a creamy consist- 
ency, but if none is at hand the same effect may be produced 
by substituting vinegar or by increasing the amount of water 
and thus prolonging the time of cooking. When the amount 
of white of egg used in a recipe is increased, the temperature 
to which the sugar solution is cooked should be increased. 

Recipe 

1 cup sugar 1/16 teaspoon cream of tartar 

}/^ cup water White of 1 egg 

This is the old standard recipe and it makes a rather dense, 
sweet frosting. The addition of another egg-white will make a 
more fluffy frosting. Since eggs vary in size, Ve cup of white of 
egg may be used to give a definite result. This recipe will make 
sufficient frosting for the top of a cake about nine inches in 
diameter. 

Method I. 

Dissolve the sugar and cream of tartar in the water over the heat, 
stirring the mixture only until the sugar is dissolved. If one egg is to be 
used, let the sugar mixture boil until it reaches the soft-ball stage (238° F.), 
or until it forms threads when some of it is dropped from the tines of a 
fork. If two eggs are to be used, boil the sugar mixture until it reaches 
a higher temperature, about 244° F., the hard-ball stage. Do not move 
the dish or stir the sirup during the remainder of the period of cooking. 
Cover the pan during the first few minutes that the sugar solution is 

* Mills, Katherine H. Making Cake. Part II. Cornell Reading-Course 
for the Farm Home, Bull. 75.) 



488 .1 MAMAL or //oua; \IAK/\a 

bniliiin, so that steam may follfrt (in tho sides of tlic pan. This will help 
lo prevent the foruialion of larne crystals that would cause the sirup to 
crystallize in coarse Rraiiis and that would spoil tlie textun' of the frosting. 
After rernovinn the cover of the pan, insert the candy therinoinr-ter and 
wash from the sides of the pan any crystals that may form, using a hrush 
or cloth that has heen wet with cold water. When the sirup is cooked, 
pour it slowly on the Ixviten white of the egg, using a Dover egg-heater 
and heating contiinially while pouring. Continue heating until the frost- 
ing is cooled and is stilT enough to spread on the cake and remain in [)lace. 
If the mixture doe.s not thicken properly, it may be cooked again by 
Method II, twice-cooked frosting. 

Method II. 

Dissolve the sugar in the water and boil the mixture without stirring 
until it reaches the hard-ball .stage (246° F.), or until the sirup when 
dropped from a spoon will form a long thread with short threads branching 
from the main one. Remove the siruj) carefully from the fire, and allow 
it to cool while the whites of the eggs are Ix'ing beaten until they are stiff 
and dry. They should be beaten in the upper part of the double boiler, 
as this will save utensils, materials, and time. Pour the sirup slowly 
over the beaten whites of the eggs, beating the mixture as long as po.ssible 
with a Dover egg-beater and after that with a spoon, until the mixture is 
light and stifT. Set the dish containing the frosting over hot water, and 
allow the mixture to cook. Beat it constantly until it is light and fluffy, 
rises slightly in the pan, and as it is stirred begins to give a slight scraping 
sound against the sides of the dish. This scraping sound may be learned 
only through experience, but it is easily detected. Remove the dish of 
frosting at once from the hot water. If the frosting is cooked too long 
over the hot water it will be granular. The frosting will probably be stiff 
enough to spread at once; if it is not, stir it until it has reached the proper 
consistency. This frosting may be piled on a cake to anj' ilesired thickness, 
or it may l)e used in a tube to make ornamental frosting. When it is 
properly made this frosting will be very light, fine grained, soft and springy. 
After it has been spread on a cake, it will form a thin crust on top and will 
keep moist and soft underneath for several days. This method makes a 
frosting known as twice-cooked. 

Variations. 

1. Allow a thin layer of melted sweet chocolate to flow over the top of 
the frosting after it has beiMi si)read on the cake and a thin crust ha.s 
formed on the top. 

2. Brown or maple sugar may I)e sul)stituted for white sugar. The sirup 
must be boiled to a higher temperature {'^^T F.) before the mixture will 
reach the soft-ball stage. 

3. Use 14 cup of dark-colored strained honey and ^^ cup of granulated 
sugar, or use 3-'^ cup light-colored strained honey and ' j cup granulated 



CAKES 489 

sugar. Add 3 tablespoons of water, and boil the mixture until it reaches 
the soft-ball stage (240° F.), or until it begins to form threads when some 
of it is dropped from the tines of a fork. Add the sirup to the white of 
egg in the manner described in Method I. This frosting stiffens but does 
not grain, and should be spread on the cake immediately before using. 

4. Freshly grated cocoanut may be liberally sprinkled on the top of a 
cake immediately after the frosting has been spread on it. 

5. Chocolate frosting may be made by Recipe I for boiled frosting by 
adding 2 squares (2 ounces) of chocolate to the sugar and water mixture 
before it has been cooked. The directions given under Method I may be 
followed. Another method is to add melted chocolate to the white frosting 
after it has been beaten and is stiff enough to spread. The amount of 
chocolate may be varied to suit the individual taste. 

6. One-half cup of chopped nuts, figs, raisins, dates, or any combination 
of nuts and these fruits, may be added to the frosting just before spreading 
it on the cake. 



CHArTKIl Will 

PASTRY 

By Winifred Moses and Lucile Brewer 

Pastry is a sliortonod (louji;li, a inixturo of flour, sliortciiiiipr, 
and liquid put toficthcr in dilTcrcnt ways, accordijin to the pur- 
pose for which it is to be used. Three kinds are in connnon 
use: (1) Plain pastiy, in which the shortening is worked into 
the flour by cutting; or chopping; (2) pufT pastry, in which the 
shortening is worked into the paste by folding; and rolling; 
(3) flaky pastry, in which the shortening is worked into the 
flour by a combination of these two methods. 

INGREDIENTS 

Flour. 

Pastry flour, made from winter wheat, makes the best pastry. 
It differs from ordinary bread flour made from spring wheat 
in that it contains less gluten and more starch; it is softer, whiter, 
and more velvety. One of the best tests for winter wheat flour 
is that it easily retains the impress of the fingers, while spring 
wheat flour tends to fall apart as quickly as the pressure is 
removed. 

Bread flour may be made to approximate pastry flour in 
effect by substituting two tablespoons of cornstarch for two 
tablespoons of flour in each cup. 

Liquid. 

Water is used as the liquid in making pastry. It should be as 
nearly ice cold as possible, except when beef drip])ings and warm 
water are used. To make pastry tender, the smallest po.ssible 
amount of water that will hold the ingredients together is used. 
The actual amount depends on the water-absorbing quality of 

490 



PASTRY 491 

the flour, and on the amount of fat used — the more fat, the less 
moisture required. 

Fat. 

The following kinds of fat may be used : butter, oleomargar- 
ine, vegetable fat, lard, lard substitutes, beef drippings, chicken 
fat, and suet. When suet is used, it is melted over boiling water 
and stirred while hot into the flour. The paste is then kneaded 
and rolled into a rather thick sheet and shaped in a mold. The 
effects of the various fats are as follows: lard: a soft, tender 
crust; cottolene: a soft, tender crust, slightly darker in color 
than if lard is used; vegetable oils: a less flaky crust and darker 
in color than if lard is used; suet: a more compact and firm 
crust than if lard is used. It has been found by experiment 
that more butter than lard is required and more lard than lard 
substitute, and that less shortening is needed when pastry flour 
is used than when bread flour is employed. 

For 1 cup of bread flour one should use: Vs cup of lard; Vs 
cup plus 1 tablespoon of butter; Ys cup minus 1 tablespoon of 
lard substitute. 

For I cup of pastry flour one should use: 3^ cup of lard; 3^ 
cup plus ^3 tablespoon of butter; 3^ cup minus Ys tablespoon 
of lard substitute. 

Lard makes the tenderer crust, but butter gives the better 
flavor. For equivalent measures of various fats see page 477. 

Baking powder. 

Baking powder may be used to help leaven the crust, in the 
proportion of }4 teaspoon to 1 cup of flour. Usually the only 
leavening agents used in pastry are the air and water which ex- 
pand when heated. 

Salt. 

If an unsalted fat is used, salt should be added in the pro- 
portion of 34 teaspoon of salt to 1 cup of flour. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PASTRY 

Lightness depends on the amount of air incorporated, on the 
expansion of that air, and on the presence of baking powder. 



41)2 .1 M.WI AL or HOME MAKIXa 

If the materials \i^i'i\ aic cold aiul tlic iiiaiiipulatiuii is carried uii 
ill a fold room, or if tlic paste is ehilled by beiiiK placed in a re- 
frifieralor, the expansion of the inclosed air is greater dn linn the; 
hakin}^ process. 

Flakitiess results when the ingredients are so mixed a,s to make 
layers. To accomplish this, fat is not thoroughly mixed into 
the dry ingredients, l)ut is left in pieces by Ijeing cut in with a 
knife or rubbed in with a spoon. 

Tenderness depends on the relative amounts of fat and water 
u.scd and on the manipulation. The more fat and the le.ss water 
used, within limits, the tenderer will be the crust. Handling 
the paste develops clasticit}' by dcveloj)ing gluten, and so makes 
a tougli crust. If the fingers are used to mix the fat with the 
flour, the heat of tlie fingers melts the fat and causes it to act as 
liquid; thus more flour is required, which tends to make a tough 
paste. 

DIKECTIONS FOli MAKING PLAIN PASTRY 

Recipe for plain pastry. 

1 cup flour }4 tea.spoon salt 

3^-1/3 cup .shortoning Water 

(1) Mix the flour and salt; (2) cut in the fat, and add only enough water 
to hold the ingredients together; (3) turn the mixture onto a slightly floured 
board and turn it with a sjjatula to cover it evenly with flour; (4) if two 
crusts are to l)e inad(^, cut the paste in two portions and roll them sep- 
arately and lightly with a rolling-pin, using motions outward from the cen- 
ter; (5) keep the dough as nearly the desired shape and as uniform in 
thickness as possible, roll it until the paste is very thin; (0) after each few 
roUing motions, loosen the dough from the board to prevent sticking. 

One-crust pie. 

Place the crust in the pie pan, being careful that it is smooth, but not 
at all stretched. A perforated pan of tin or agate ware is best. The pan 
should never be greased. With scissors cut around the edges, leaving a 
margin of about H inch. Turn this slightlj' under, and jiress it into fancy 
edges with the fingers. Fill the crust, and bake it in a moderate oven for 
40 minutes. Fillings for one-crust pies are made with milk and egg founda- 
tions, such as custard, cream, and pumpkin, or from cooked fruit, such 
as apple-sauce. These liquid fillings are likely to .soak into the pie crust 
during the process of baking, making a soggy crust. This may be avoided 
by brushing over the crust with white of egg and placing the unfilled crust 



PASTRY 493 

in a hot oven long enough to coagulate the egg-white, thus forming a 
coating to prevent the filling from soaking into the crust. Or instead of 
heating the crust in the oven, the filling may be heated separately to such 
a temperature that on adding it to the crust it will coagulate the white of 
egg. 

Crust baked without filling. 

The crust is sometimes baked first and then filled with a cooked filling. 
Many persons prefer this kind of pie since the crust is crisp and well baked. 
Invert a pie plate, cover the outside with pastry, fit it carefully to the 
plate, and press the edge well to the edge of the plate. Trim the edge 
if necessary, set the pie plate on a tin sheet to prevent the edge of the 
paste from touching the floor of the oven. Prick the crust well with a 
fork, and bake it from 12 to 15 minutes, or until it is thoroughly baked. 
Slip the crust from the outside of the pan, and put it in place as an under 
crust. Use any cooked filling, and place over the top strips or figures of 
baked pastry, or a meringue. 

Two-cru^t pie. 

The lower crust is placed in the pie pan as for a one-crust pie, but in 
this case the edges should be cut close and evenly with a knife. The 
flavored filling is then added. The upper crust should be rolled rather 
thick, brushed with butter, and lightly sprinkled with flour. SUts should 
be cut in the crust to allow for the escape of steam. The edges of the 
lower crust are then moistened with water and the upper crust laid over 
the pie, care again being taken not to stretch the crust. The edges then 
are cut and pressed firmly together into a fancy shape with the fingers or 
a fork. Allow water to run over the top of the crust to make a flaky finish. 
If a shiny finish is preferred, brush over the top with a mixture of slightly 
beaten white of egg and water, without buttering and flouring the top. 
If the fiUing is of a juicy type, a paper tube inserted in one of the slits in 
the crust vnU. allow the steam to escape readily and prevent the juice from 
running out. Bake the pie in a moderate oven (page 480) for 40 minutes. 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING FLAKY PASTRY 

Flaky pastry made half of washed butter and half of other 
shortening is used for pie crusts, turnovers, cheese straws, and 
tarts. 

Recipe for flaky pastry. 

3 cups flour 3^ cup shortening 

j4 teaspoon salt H cup washed butter 

3/8 to % cup water 

(1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and free from milk; (2) sift the 
flour and salt twice; (3) cut the H cup shortening into the flour with a 



494 .1 MAMAL or IKiMi: MAKISa 

knife; (1) ndd cold w.-ilcr unidiiiilly, mixing it with a knife t<i a paste a« 
for plain pastry; it imisl not Ix- sticky; (')) kiir-ad it slightly; ((')) cover it, 
and set it in a cool place for f) minutes; (1) pat it with a rollinK-pin, and 
roll it out into a rectaii^ular sheet; (8) spread half the butter on half 
the surface and fold, press down the ednes so that no air nor butter can 
escape, then spread the remainder of the Imtter <in half a^ain and f(»I<l, 
pinching the edfjes tifil\tly lonetiier; ('.() set it in a cool j)lace again for 5 
minutes; (10) roll the pastry two or three; times, allowing it to cool be- 
twe(>n each turn; (11) roll it out to 1/S inch thickness, and bake it in a hot 
oven (page 480). 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING PUFF PASTRY 

Puff paste is used when pastry of ^rcat fiakiiicss and lip;htnes.s 
is desirod, as in patty shells, tarts, fruit rolls, tea cakes, Floren- 
tine meringues, and the like. 

Recipe for pujf pastry. 

1 pound washed butter 
13 2 pounds pastry flour 
1 cup ice water 

(1) Wash the butter until it is creamy and squeeze out all the liquid; 
(2) separate the butter into six parts; (3) take out 32 pound of the flour; 
(4) cut one piece of butter into the pound of flour, add ice water, and 
mix the ingredients into a paste with as little handling as possible; (5) 
knead the dough until it is smooth and elastic, cover it, set it in a cool 
place for 5 minutes; (G) roll the paste, outward from the center, into a rec- 
tangiilar piece; (7) place one piece of the l)Utter on onc^half the surface, 
fold the pastry over, and pinch down the edges to keep in the air; (8) fold 
the right edge two-thirds of the way back, fold the left edge back over 
this, pinch down the edges again so that no air or butter can escape, cover 
the paste, and let it stand in a cool place for 5 minutes; (0) roll it out into 
another rectangle, and repeat the former jirocess with the next pat of 
butter, being sure to press the edges each time to keep in both the air and 
the butter; (10) repeat this process until all pats of butter have been 
used; each time before rolling the paste, turn it halfway round in order 
to roll from another side, and always roll from you; (11) after the 
final rolling, the paste must be chilled on ice or in a very cool place for 
an hour or two; (12) bake it in a hot oven (page 480) with the heat coming 
from below, and set it on the floor of even a gas oven for the first 5 minutes. 

PufT pastiy when leaked should he eight times as thick as 
when put into the oven. It is very rich and has a surface that is 
light, flaky, and rather shiny. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
YEAST BREAD 

By Claribel Nye 

The making of yeast bread has a certain fascination because 
success depends largely on the proper control of living organ- 
isms, or yeasts. If dough is left for too long or is kept too warm, 
the yeast plants become weakened; then the bacteria that may 
be present grow and produce an acid, making the bread sour. 
The milk is scalded in order to kill any bacteria present. Proper 
baking of bread kills all bacteria, yeasts, and molds, and insures 
its keeping, if it is carefully handled and stored afterwards. 

INGREDIENTS 

The essential ingredients for yeast bread are flour, yeast, 
liquid, and salt. Other ingredients often added for flavor, 
texture, or keeping quality are sugar, shortening, and potatoes. 
In place of the customary wheat, corn, barley, oats, rice, po- 
tatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used. 
In place of some of the wheat ordinarily used, corn, barley, 
oats, rice, potatoes, peanuts, or breadcrumbs may be used. 

The cereals may be ground and added with the flour, or they 
may be cooked to a mush before they are added to the batter. 

Flour. 

The best bread flour is called strong flour and is made from 
hard spring wheat. This wheat is grown in the Dakotas, Min- 
nesota, a part of Iowa, Nebraska, northern Kansas, northern 
Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. A strong winter wheat 
is grown in a limited number of states, notably Kansas. A 
strong bread flour is slightly granular, has a creamy color, and 
gives bread of maximum volume. 

495 



I'.m; .i .\/.l.Vr.l/. OF IIOMK'MAKISC 

W heat and lyc lloiiis arc particularly adapted to hroad-inak- 
iiit; lu'causc tlicv contain materials which, wlien nuiistened, form 
an clastic substance, called {gluten. The gluten expands with 
the pressure of heated p;ases in baking and forms a framework 
surroundinji; the other inf^redients. A jjood yeast bread K^'uerally 
contains some wheat or rye (lour, although other cereals can well 
be useil to a certain extent. 

The present complex standardized process o{ milling wheat 
is the result of a gradual remarkable develf)j)ment which bep;tin 
in the days when women were millers, the mill consisting; of 
two stones l)etwcen which the ^vixm was liromid. The patent, 
or roller, process now used produces a flour difTerent in color, 
composition, and bread-making quahties. Although wheat 
milled l)y the roller process yields a flour that gives a white loaf 
and consequent 1}" makes its appeal to the eye, the flour contains 
less of the entire wheat kernel than that produced by the other 
method. 

The patent reduction, or roller, process is so named because 
the wheat is reduced to flour by ])ei!ig put throvigh a series of 
steel rollers. The wheat is first cleaned, and then gradually 
reduced to flour as it passes through a series of steel rollers, 
each pair adjusted to give a finer product than the preceding. 
As the wheat passes through each set of rollers, a little of it is 
reduced to flour and the remainder is called middlings. The 
middlings are then carried through the next roller; each time 
the result is flour and middlings. The bran cannot be reduced 
to flour but is flattened b}^ the steel rollers and separated from 
the flour. The quality of the flour that results from the blend- 
ing of the flours obtained from the difTerent rollers depends on 
the skill of the miller. 

Flour is sometimes said to be 80 per cent patent. This 
usuall}^ means that 80 per cent of the flom- obtained from the 
wheat in the different stages of milling has l)een lilended for 
market. The term "patent " flour came into use when the roller, 
or patent, milling process was introduced; its meaning at the 
present time is not uniform throughout the country. 

Graham, from whom gi-aham flour received its name, believed 



YEAST BREAD 497 

that the entire wheat kernel should be used for food and de- 
veloped a milling process by which all the kernel, with the excep- 
tion of the outer inedible coats, was used. At the present time, 
most graham flour is made by combining bran and white flour. 

AVhole-wheat flour does not contain so large a percentage of 
the entire wheat kernel as does graham. However, graham, 
because of its coarseness, may be irritating to the digestive tract 
of some persons. 

White flour contains less of the wheat kernel than does either 
whole-wheat or graham. 

Yeast. 

Yeasts are very small plants, having a diameter of about 
3/1000 inch. In bread-making, yeast serves two functions: 
(1) by its action on the sugar of the flour it forms carbon di- 
oxide gas, which makes the dough light; (2) it gives the char- 
acteristic flavor which is found in bread only when yeast is 
used. 

Before yeast was sold commercially, women used to obtain 
it by exposing batter to the air for several hours. The difficulty 
with this method was that various yeast plants, as well as other 
organisms present in the air, might enter, whereas only one 
type of yeast is best for bread-making. Thus the flavor of the 
bread was not always desirable. Old-fashioned liquid yeast, 
or potato yeast, represents the housekeeper's method. The 
yeasts grow and multiply rapidly in potato water to which 
salt and sugar have been added. This mixture is then kept in 
a cool place until needed for bread-making. The disadvan- 
tage of liquid yeast is that other yeasts and organisms find 
their way into the mixture and may give the bread a peculiar 
flavor. 

For the commercial product, one form of yeast is grown under 
very carefully standardized conditions. The yeasts are mixed 
with cornmeal and the mixture pressed into cakes and dried; 
or the yeasts are mixed with starch or tapioca flour, pressed 
into cakes, and sold in the form of compressed yeast. In the 
dried form they will keep in fairly good condition for months; 



498 .1 MAMAL or HOME MAKlSd 

coinprosscd ycasl keeps for only :i few days, Imt tho yeast is 
much more Meli\-e llian it is in the dry cakes and, therefore, 

lircad call lie made more (|iii<'kl\' from it. 

Liquid. 

Tlie H(|uid used in l)i-ead-makin<r may he water, whole milk, 
skimmed milk, whey, potato water, rice water, or the like. 
Increased nutritive value, as well as better flavor and t(!Xture, 
are points in favor of usinc; milk in some of its forms insteaci 
of water. 

MIXING AND KXKADINfi 

Milk for making bread is scalded in order to kill any organ- 
isms that mij;ht dc^velop under the favoraljlo conditions offered 
and thus give the bread a bad flavor. 

The best temperature for the growth of yeast is 75° to 90" 
F. Below 40° to 60° F. yeast will not grow, 'it is killed at 140° 
F. Therefore, the liquid is cooled until it is lukewarm before 
the yeast is added. 

Sponge method. 

For the sponge method of mixing l)read, sufficient flour is 
used to make a batter. This is 13^ cups of flour to 1 cup of 
liquid. The mixture is set aside until the surface is covered with 
bubbles. Suflficient flour to make a dough is then added. The 
sponge method is followed fi-(>quently when dry yeast is u.sed. 
Yeast plants grow rapidl}' in a thin I)atter, and as they are not 
in an active state in dry yeast cakes, the batter makes possible 
a quick grow-th of j^east. AVith compressed yeast the sponge 
method is unnecessary. 

Straight-dough method. 

For the straight-dough method, sufficient flour to make a 
dough is added as soon as the yeast has been added to the 
liquid. The dough is removed to a floured board and is kneaded 
until it is smooth and elastic, and until it \vill not stick to an 
unflonred l)oard. Kneading is for tho jiurpose of thoroughly 



YEAST BREAD 499 

mixing all the ingredients, developing the elasticity of the gluten, 
and incorporating air into the dough. 

Mixing bread by a machine. 

If three or more loaves of bread are being made, a bread- 
mixer saves time and labor. If the correct proportion of flour 
to liquid is used, and the mixing is continued until the dough is 
smooth and elastic, the same result will be obtained by machine- 
mixing as with equal care by hand-mixing. Frequently too 
much flour is used. This causes slow rising, and if the dough 
is made into loaves before the rising is complete, the resulting 
bread will be compact and inferior in other respects. 

FERMENTATION 

The rising of dough until it goes into the pan is called fer- 
mentation. The best temperature for the growtl\ of yeast is 
80° to 87° F. 

If a strong or good grade of bread flour is used, the dough 
should treble its original size in the first rising. If a weak or 
poor grade of flour is used, the dough will only double its original 
size. 

The texture and the flavor of bread is improved by a second 
rising of the dough. The dough should increase its original size 
by only one-half during the second rising. 

SHAPING DOUGH 

No flour should be used in molding loaves. The dough is 
molded by folding the sides under several times. It is placed 
in a greased tin with the crease on the bottom. The tins 
should be only half filled with the dough. 

PROOFING 

The rising in the pan is called "proofing." 

This rising can be more rapid than in fermentation. Com- 
mercially, loaves are proofed at a temperature about 10° above 
that of fermentation. 



olio .1 M.WIWL OF IK) mi: M.\Kl\<; 

BAKINC; 

Loaves arc ready to l»e l»ake<l wlieii Ihey have floubled their 
orif^iiial size. 

The hakiiip; teiiiperalure depends somewhat on the amount of 
sugar and short ciiinji; used in the douf!;li. With an inerease in 
sugar and shortening, tiierc; should l)e a deerease in temperature. 
The best temperature for phiin bread dough is from 380° to 
400° F. Loaves weigliing l^? pounds should be baked from 
50 to 60 minutes at from 380° t"o 400° F. 

A uniform temjieratuic during the entire baking period gives 
good results, although many authorities believe the tempera- 
ture should be increased after the first 15 minutes. Dough 
should ri.se, or spring, during the first 5 minutes it is in the oven. 
At the end of 15 minutes it should begin to l)rown, and as baking 
continues the bread should draw away from the sides of the tin 
and brown on all sides. 

If a soft, 'shiny crust is desired, the loaves should be greased 
5 minutes l)efore baking is completed. 

IJread should l)e removed from the pans as soon as it is taken 
from the oven. The loaves shoukl be cooled ciuickly, in cir- 
culating air and not covered. 

"rope" in bread 

A condition in l)read that causes considerable troul)le and 
financial loss in bakeries and occasionally in home l)aking is 
called "ropiness," and the bread is known as "ropy bread." 
Such bread for several hours after baking looks, smells, and 
tastes like any well-made bread; then there quickly develops 
a most disagreealile odor. When the loaf is broken, the interior 
is slim}^ sticky, and stringy. Such bread, of course, is not fit 
for food. 

" Rope" is the result of the action of a form of Ivacteria which, 
if present, is found in the flour. It din-elojis only in very hot 
weather. The organism chiefly resiionsil)le for ropiness is said 
to be generally distril)uted in the soil. The best flours may be 
infected, and it is impossible in buying flour to know whether 
the organism is present. 



YEAST BREAD 501 

When the difficulty is found, all utensils and containers used 
for flour, bread-making, or storing bread should be sterihzed 
by boiling. In making bread from the remainder of the flour 
on hand or from additional flour of the same brand bought 
during the hot weather, vinegar should be added to the liquid 
in the proportion of two per cent of the amount of flour, or 
about 1 tablespoon to each pound of flour. In all other respects 
the bread should be made in the usual way. The bread will 
not have as good a bloom as under normal conditions, but 
otherwise it is not inferior. 

RECIPES 

White bread {2 loaves) 

2 tablespoons sugar — brown or granulated — honey, molasses, or corn 
sirup. (The sugar may be omitted.) 

2 tablespoons any kind of shortening. (The shortening may be omitted.) 

23^ teaspoons salt 

23^ cups liquid — water, scalded milk, rice water, or whey 

K to 2 cakes dry or compressed yeast, or 2/3 to 2 cups potato yeast 

6 to 8 cups white bread flour 

The amount of flour varies slightly. A smaller quantity of good bread 
flour than of poor, is required. If the flour is damp, more must be used 
than if it is dry. The shortening and the sugar may be omitted. If the 
bread is to be made in 8 hours, only 34 cake of dry or compressed yeast 
or 2/3 cup of liquid yeast need be used. If the bread is to be made in 4 
hours or less, 2 cakes of dry or compressed yeast or 2 cups of liquid yeast 
are needed. 

General directions for mixing and baking bread 

(1) Add the hot scalded milk or other liquid to the sugar, the salt, and 
the shortening; (2) when this is lukewarm, add the yeast, which has been 
softened in a small amount of lukewarm water (this water is included in 
the amount of liquid given in the recipe) ; (3) add one-half the amount of 
flour called for in the recipe; beat the mixture well and add the remainder 
of the flour slowly until the dough is stiff enough to knead; (4) knead the 
dough, using as little flour as possible on the board, and adding only 
enough flour to keep the dough from sticking; continue kneading until 
the dough is smooth and will form a ball that does not flatten out when 
it stands on the board; when the dough does not stick to the board, 
on which there is no flour, it has been sufficiently kneaded; (5) moisten 
the top of the dough with water or fat to prevent a crust forming on it, 
cover the dough with a towel, and set it aside to rise in a warm place at a 
temperature of about 85° to 90° F.; (6) when the dough has risen until it is 



."02 .1 MAM M. OF HOME MAKIXG 

Iwicc its nriniiial size, work it dnwii l)y fdliiiiin tin- sides un<i(T four fimos; 
(7) cover I lie doiiuli anain, and allow it to rise until it li:ts iiicroascd its size 
liy onf-lialf; (S) shape the doujjli into loaves, and i)lac<' tliein in nrea.s<*<l 
pans, fillinn the pans al»oiit half full; {*.)) allow the loaves to rise until they 
are doul)le in l)ulk when the douf^h will Ix'^in to foll(Jw the shape of the 
pans; (10) hake the loaves for 50 to tJO minutes in a moderate oven at 
a tem|)erature from ;iS()° to 400° l'\; the Ijread should Ix-j^in to hrown 
at the end of 15 minutes; (11) remove the bread from the pans at onee, 
and place the loaves where they will cool quickly; do not cover the hreail 
while it is hot; (12) if a soft, shiny crust is desired, grease the crust 5 min- 
utes before the baking is completed. 

Variations 

For variation in kind of bread, use the recipes and directions for making 
white bread, substituting, according to the following suggestions, other 
flour or cereals for part of the white flour. The substitutes may be u.sed 
in larger proportions than are here indicated, but the loaves will not be so 
light or so similar to white bread. 

Entire wheat bread: 6 cups entire wheat flour, 2 cups white bread flour. 
Foll(jw the general directions. 

Graham broad: G cups graham flour, 2 cups white bread flour. Follow 
the general directions. 

Rolled oats bread (not kneaded): 1}4 cups rolled oats, 5^4 cups white 
bread Hour. Pour boiling milk or other liquid over the oats, the sxdt, and 
the sugar. When the mi.xture is lukewarm, add the yea^^t. Add the flour, 
and beat the dough well. \\'hen it has doul)led in l)ulk, beat it well. Turn 
it into greased bread tins. When it has doul)led in Inilk, bake it for 1 
hour. Generally mola.sses or brown sugar is used instead of granulated 
sugar. 

Rolled oats bread (kneaded) : 2 cups rolled oats, G cups white bread flour. 
Add the boiling liquid to the rolled oats, the salt, the sugar, and the .shorten- 
ing; when the mixture is lukewarm, add the j'east. Then atld the flour, 
knead the dough, and proceed according to the general directions. 

Rice bread: 2 cups cooked rice, rice water for liquid, 3 cups graham flour, 
5% cups white broad flour. Boil J2 cup of rice in 2 quarts of imsalted 
water for from 15 to 20 minutes. Drain the rice, and dry it somewhat. 
Follow the general directions. 

Wheat bread (l)rcadcrumbs): 2 cu])s broadcnnnbs, 5J2 cups white 
bread flour. Add the boiling liquid to the breadcrumbs, sugar, shortening, 
and salt. When the mixture is lukewarm, follow the general directions. 

Wheat bread (home^ground wlu^it): 4 cups home-ground wheat, 4 to 
43^ cups white bread flour. Follow the general directions. 

Potato flour bread: 2 cups potato flour, 5'4 cups white bread flour. 
Follow the general directions. 

Rye l)read: .'i cups rye flour, 432 cups white bread Hour. Follow the 



YEAST BREAD 



503 



general directions. Since the dough is soft and sticky, it is difficult to 
knead; but do not let this tempt you to add more white flour. 

Barley bread: 4K cups home-ground barley meal, 4J^ cups white bread 
flour. Follow the general directions. One cup of barley makes 1^ cups 
of barley meal. 

Corn bread: 2 cups cornflour, 7 cups white bread flour. Follow the 
general directions. 

Combination yeast breads {3 loaves) * 

Directions for making these combination breads follow the recipes. 



White Bread (Basic recipe) 
13 cups flour 
2 tablespoons corn sirup 
5 teaspoons salt 
2 cakes compressed yeast 

1 quart water 

Corn Bread 
8 cups flour 

IH cups cornmeal, uncooked 
5 teaspoons salt 

2 tablespoons corn sirup 
2 cakes compressed yeast 
5 cups water 

Rolled Oats Bread 
8 cups flour 

2^ cups rolled oats, uncooked 
2 tablespoons molasses 
5 teaspoons salt 
2 cakes compressed yeast 
5 cups water 

Rice Bread 
8 cups flour 

1 cup rice, uncooked 

2 tablespoons corn sirup 
5. teaspoons salt 

2 cakes compressed yeast 
5 cups water 



Potato Bread 
8 cups flour 

2 pounds, or 13^ quarts potatoes, 
uncooked, diced 

7 teaspoons salt 

2 tablespoons corn sirup 
2 cakes compressed yeast 

4 cups water 

Bean Bread 

8 cups flour 

1 cup beans, uncooked 

2 tablespoons corn sirup 

5 teaspoons salt 

2 cakes compressed yeast 
5 cups water 

Barley Bread 

7 cups flour 

1 cup barley, uncooked 

2 tablespoons molasses 
5 teaspoons salt 

2 cakes compressed yeast 
5 cups water 

Breadcrumb Bread 

8 cups flour 

4 cups breadcrumbs 

2 tablespoons molasses 

5 teaspoons salt 

2 cakes compressed yeast 

4 cups water (or milk and water) 



(1) To prepare the substitute, soak beans or barley overnight, drain off 
the water, measure it, and add sufficient water to make 1 quart, then cook 
the beans or barley in this until they are soft; cook the cereal in 1 quart of 
* Charles Taylor. 



504 .1 MAMAL OF IKKMi: MAKIXG 

the wator called for in iho rvcipo and tlio polato in :{ flips until it is soft; 
niasli the potato; f^rind the lircad in a clioppcr, addiiiu ■{ cups of lukewarm 
water; (2) coinljine tiie hot mush or mashed potato r»r hreadcruinhs, tho 
salt, and the sw(M'teninK, slirrinjj; the mixture often enouuli to avoid the 
formation of any film, until it has cooled to hlood heat ; ('.i) when it is luke- 
warm, add the yeast which has been softened in 1 cu|) of water, rethicing 
the yeast one-lialf, and increasinn the salt one-fourth if the hread is st't 
overniKlit; (4) add the flour, and knead the douuli thorouf^hly, using an 
little flour on the i)()ard as possible; (5) let the dough rise for 3J'2 hours, 
or until it has doui)led in hulk at the approximate temperature of 75° F.; 
(()) work it down, and let it rise again for II2 hours, or until it has in- 
creased its size by one-half; (7) mold it, place it in pans, and let it rise 
until it has almost doubled in bulk; (S) bake the loaves for 50 to 60 min- 
utes in a moderately hot oven, or at a temperature of 360° to 400° F.; 
(9) remove the bread from the pans at once, and cool it quickly. 

On account of the reduced amount of gluten in these breads, they must 
be molded and handled with great care. 

Wheatlcss yeast breads. * 

Quick rising seems to give best results with wheatless yeast breads. 
Therefore, a larger proportion of yeast is used than is neces.sary when the 
dough is allowed to rise overnight. 

The best loaf is made from dough which is so .soft that it must be stirred, 
not kneaded. 

Only part of the flour should be added at the beginning. \Mien the 
.sponge has risen for about 20 minutes, it should be beaten or stirred thor- 
oughly; then the remaining flour should b(> added and the dough turned 
into the i)an. It should be allowed to rise in the pan for al)out 30 minutes, 
or until it rounds uj) slightly. These doughs never double in bulk in the 
rising as do wheat doughs. 

.Small loaves made from these heavy cereals are likely to have a better 
.shape and texture than large ones, although one loaf may be made from 
the recipes given. 

Slow baking gives the best results. J>om 114 to Ij^ hours in a fairly 
slow oven is the time recommended. 

Barley, oat and rice flour bread {2 small loaves). 

2)4, cups barley flour 2 teaspoons salt 

l^ cup rice flour 1 tablespoon corn sirup 

IH cups ground rolletl oats 1 cake compressed yeast 

1 cup milk M cup lukewarm water 

Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the 
salt and siru]). When the mixture is lukewarm, a(Kl the yeast, then the 
barley flour and rice flour, sifted. B(>at the dough well, and allow it to 
rise until it is light. Add the sifted oat flour, and turn the mixture into 

* Lucile Brewer. 



YEAST BREAD 505 

greased pans. Allow it to rise for 20 or 30 minutes, and bake it in a mod- 
erate oven from 1 to 1 34 hours. 

Barley and rice bread {2 small loaves). 
4 cups barley flour 1 tablespoon corn sirup 

1 cup boiled rice 1 cake compressed yeast 

1 cup milk 1^ cup lukewarm water 

2 teaspoons salt 

Soften the yeast in the lukewarm water. Scald the milk, and add the 
sirup and salt. When the mixture is lukewarm, add the yeast. 

SALT-RISING BREAD 

An old-fashioned bread, the making of which is almost a lost 
art to-day, is called salt-rising bread. No yeast is used. Gas 
from a certain type of bacteria found in cornmeal is the leaven- 
ing agent. Dough made from freshly ground cornmeal rises 
much more rapidly than that from old cornmeal; in fact, failure 
generally results unless fresh cornmeal is used. 

The bread is handled in the same way as yeast-raised bread, 
except that the entire process can be carried on at a somewhat 
higher temperature than is possible with yeast bread. 

The odor of salt-rising bread during fermentation and proofing 
is characteristic. No other dough is like it. 

Salt-rising bread is finer in texture than yeast bread, and some 
persons believe it is more easily digested. 

Recipe for salt-rising bread {3 loaves). 

(1) In the evening make a mush of 2 tablespoons of cornmeal and about ]/2 
cup of scalded milk. Keep it in a warm place overnight. (2) In the morning 
mix together 1 cup lukewarm water, J^ teaspoon salt, 3^ teaspoon soda, 13^ 
cups flour, cornmeal mush. (3) Cover the mixture, and place the dish in 
warm water until the mixture is light. (4) To 2 cups lukewarm water add 
2 teaspoons of salt and 3 cups of flour. Add to this the cornmeal leavening 
mixture. Allow the mixture to rise until it is light. Then add sufficient 
flour to make a dough. Knead it until it is smooth, make it into loaves, 
place it in tins, and allow it to rise until it is double in bulk. Bake it 
according to the general directions. 



(■n.\iTi:i; xxv 

COOKING OF CEREALS 

By Mxry V. IIknuv 

Cereals in Ronoral arc a cheap source of cnorRy but there are 
wide differences in the cost of the various cereals themselves. 
Rolled oats, the whole-wheat grain, and cornmeal are, under 
ordinary conditions, the cheapest enerfry-vieldinfz; foods. The 
ready-to-eat and the partly cooked cereals are fioni two to ten 
times as expensive as the raw cereals. Attention given to the 
proper cooking of the raw cereals and to simple variations in 
serving them will, therefore, help to keep the food bills low, 
while at the same time the family is provided with a nutritious 
and appetizing food. 

Proportion of cereal and water. 

No rule for the proportion of cereal and water can be given 
that will apply to all kinds of cereals, or that will give a con- 
sistency which will satisfy every taste. The kind of cereal, 
the method of manufacture, and the method of cooking affect 
the amount of water that should be used. Cereal cooked in a 
fireless cooker requires less water than that cooked in a double 
boiler because there is less evaporation. Cereal cooked in a 
double boiler requires less water than that cooked directly over 
the fire, for the same reason. The table here given suggests 
proportions of water and cereal that may be used. Modifica- 
tion may be made to suit the taste. 

The proportion of salt should l^e 14 ^^ 1 teaspoon for every 
cup of water. 

Time required for cooking cereals. 

Cereals require long, slow cooking to make them palatable 
and digestible. Just as the various cereals call for different 

rm 



COOKING OF CEREALS 507 

proportions of water, so they require different lengths of time 
for cooking. The whole grains and the ground grains contain- 
ing large amounts of cellulose, such as whole-wheat, oatmeal, 
or Ralston 's breakfast food, require a longer time for cooking 
than the grains that naturally or because of the process of manu- 
facture contain less cellulose, such as rice or cream of wheat. 
The time of cooking may be reduced considerably by soaking 
the cereal for several hours, or even as long as overnight, to 
soften the cellulose. This soaking may be esj^ecially desirable 
in the case of whole cereals. Since the cereal in this way absorbs 
a considerable amount of water, an equal amount should be 
deducted from that used in cooking the cereal. 

Utensils for cooking cereals. 

A fireless cooker is particularly well adapted for cooking 
cereals, since it gives the desirable long, slow cooking and makes 
possible a saving in attention and fuel. A double boiler is the 
next most convenient utensil. Cereals may be cooked directly 
over the fire if the temperature is kept low, but since there is a 
tendenc}^ to shorten the time of cooking because of the attention 
required to prevent burning, this method is in general not 
recommended. Even if stirred, cereal cooked in this way is 
likely to stick to the kettle and make it difficult to wash. 

Directions for cooking cereals in a double boiler. 

(1) Measure the water, and bring it to the boiling point in the upper 
part of a double boiler; (2) when the water is boiling vigorously, sprinkle 
the dry cereal into it slowly in order not to stop the boiling, as this will 
prevent lumping; (3) stir the cereal only slightly to prevent sticking and 
allow it to boil from 5 to 10 minutes, or until it thickens; (4) cover the 
container, and place it over the lower part of the double boiler, which is 
filled one-third full with boiling water; (5) cook the cereal for the required 
length of time, keeping the water in the lower part of the double boiler 
constantly boiling. 

Directions for cooking cereals in a fireless cooker. 

(1) Cook the cereal in the fireless cooker container over direct heat for 
5 or 10 minutes according to the directions just given for the use of a 
double boiler; (2) when the cereal has boiled 5 or 10 minutes, cover the 
container and place it as quickly as possible in the fireless cooker and 



508 



.1 .U.l.\7 .1/. OF UOMKMAKlXn 



illow it to rciiiiiiii overnight. If ii hot soapstoiic is luswl, 4 or 5 hours' 
iiiokiiiK may Ix' suflicicnt. If nccossary, n'hcat (ho cereal over direct 
licat or in a contaiiiiT of hoihiin water before .s(?rving it. 



TABLK XXX.— CoDKiN-o of Ckrkaij* 





^feasure 
(rupn) 


Amount of 

water ' 


Tim,- of C 


ookinfj 




Kind of rcrail 


Over dirrrt 

hnit 
(minules) 


Dmtlilp 
hoUcr 
(huura) 


FircUna 
cooker 


Amount 

after 
cooking 

(cupji) 


Pettijohn's 

Rolled oats 

Cream of wheat . . . 




2 to 24 
2 to 2'2 
4 to .5 
1 to 5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

1 

4 
3,4 to 5 


-> to 10 
.'l to 10 

3 to r, 

3 to .■> 
."> to 10 
.-) to 10 
5 to 10 
.5 to 10 
h to 10 
r. to 10 
5 to 10 
.5 to 10 


3 
3 
1 
1 

2 to 3 

to >> 
.3 

(> 
C. to S 
'} to (1 

1 to 2 
3 


OvcrniKht 
Ov<>rniKht 
OvcrniKht 
OvcrniKht 
OvcrniKht 
( )vcrniKht 
Overnight 
OvcrniKht 
OvcrniKht 
OvcrniKht 
Overnight 
Overnight 


2 want 
2 

4 want 
4 scant 


C'ornmeal 

Entire grain wheat. 
Ralston's 


4 scant 

3 4 

4 scant 
34 


Hominy grits 

Samp 

Wheatena 

Rice 


3 J 2 scant 
4 

4 scant 
4H 



' If the tireless cooker is used, from 14 to 14 fup le.s.s water should be added than is 
pivcn in this table. 

Variations in cooking and serving breakfast cereals. 

Cereals ma\^ be cooked in milk, or in a combination of milk 
and water. Slightly more milk is necessary than when water 
alone is used. The use of milk in cooking cereals offers a way 
of increasing the milk-content of a meal and makes the dish 
more nutritious. Figs or raisins may be chopped fine and stirred 
in a few minutes before serving. Bananas, berries, or other 
fiuit may be served with the cereal. Combinations of two or 
moi-e kinds of cereals are good for variety. 

Uses for left-over cereals. 

Left-over cereals maj^ be sei'\'ed in various ways. The cereal 
may be poured into individual molds and served as pudding 
with fruit sauce or cream. Dates, figs, or other fruit may be 
added before it is molded. If the cereal is sufficiently stiff, 
it may be molded in a loaf, sliced, browned in a small amount of 
fat, and served with sirup or tomato sauce. Left-over cereal 
may be used for a part of the flour in muffins, pancakes, or other 
breads, and in scalloped dishes or croquettes. 



• COOKING OF CEREALS 509 

How to pop corn* 

For good results in popping, the main requisites are good corn 
and a good hot fire. In popping, certain precautions may be 
observed to good advantage. Too much pop-corn should not 
be taken at one time, not more than enough barely to cover the 
bottom of the popper one kernel deep. The popper should be 
held high enough above the fire or heat to keep from burning 
the kernels or scorching them too quickly. The right degree 
of heat for best results in popping should make good corn begin 
to pop in 13^2 minutes. This should give the maximum volmne 
increase in popping. If it begins to pop in less time or if a large 
quantity of corn is put into the popper, it will not pop up so 
crisp and flaky. If it takes much longer for the popping to be- 
gin, the heat is probably not great enough or the pop-corn is 
of poor quality, or there may be other interfering causes, such 
as drafts of cold air. 

To preserve the snowy whiteness of the popped kernels, the 
flame must be kept from striking them. This can be done by 
placing a plate of iron or a stove lid between the corn and 
the fire if a wire popper is used or by using a pan popper if 
popping directly over a flame. 

If the pop-corn is in first-class condition and the heat properly 
applied, 1 pint of unpopped corn should give 15 to 20 pints of 
popped corn. 

* Hartley, C. P., and Willier, J. G. Farmers' BuU. 553. U. S. Dept. of 
Agr. 



('iiAi'ri:i; xwi 

MEAT AND POULTRY 

Bv LUCILK liUEWKU 

Although meat is not a necessity in the diet (page 410), 
the estimate is that in the United States about one-third of the 
total expeiuHtuie of money foi' food is for meat. This country' 
shows tlie lii^hest per capita consumption. Doubtless one of the 
reasons for this large consumption is that meat has an appetiz- 
ing flavor and is easily cooked, especially the tender cuts. Amer- 
ican cooks have not j'et ac(iuired the skill of European and 
Oriental cooks in flavoring foods, nor do the^^ under ordinary 
conditions, devote sufficient time and thought to the prepara- 
tion of meat-substitute dishes. However, with the rising cost 
of meat, more attention is ])eing paid to the tough, and conse- 
quently, cheaper, cuts and to the complete utihzation of all 
meat bought. 

SELECTION OF MEAT BY APPEARANCE 

Beef should be firm and fine-grained in texture. It should 
have a bright red color and be well mottled with fat. The 
fat of beef should be firm and of a yellowish color. Suet 
should be dry and should crumble readily. For cuts of beef, see 
Fig. 118. " 

Veal should be of a pinkish color. The fat should be firm and 
white. 

Mutton should be a bright pink color and fine-grained. The 
fat of mutton should be hard and flaky. The outside skin 
should come off e:>sily. For cuts of mutton, see Fig. 110. 

Lamh. — The bones of laml) are ic^ddish in coloi- while tho.se 
of mutton are white. 

510 



MEAT AND POULTRY 



511 



Pork. — The skin of pork should be white and clear. The 
flesh should be of a pinkish tint. For cuts of pork see Fig. 120. 





Fig. 118.— Cuts of beef. 



Fig. 119. — Cuts of mutton. 



Poultry. — Chickens should have soft feet, a smooth skin, and 
soft cartilage at the end of the breast bone. An abundance of 
pin feathers indicates a young bird. Long hairs indicate age. 



r)i2 



.1 M.\.\ IM. or HOME M.\Kl\<; 



The feel of fouls aic hard and dry, with coarse scales. The 
cartilage at the end of the breast hone has hecome ossified. A 

jiood turkey should Ik^ j)hnni); its 
iejrs should 1)(! sniootii, and the car- 
tilage at the end (jf tiie hrca.st hone 
should ho soft and pliahle. (Pajj;e 
524). 

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING 

Meat is cooked to soften connect- 
ive tissue, to develop flavor, to im- 
prove appearance, and to destroy 
bacteria or other organisms. 

The cuts of meat may i)e divided 
into two classes, tlic tough and the 
tender. Although the tough cuts 
are as nutritious as the tender and 
are cheaper, more skill and ingenuity 
are required to make them palatable. 

Both nutritive material and flavor 
are retained in meat by searing over 
the surface at the beginning of the 
cooking period. This may be done 
by plunging it into boiling water or 
hot fat, or by placing it in a hot oven 
or over an open fire as in broiling, 
thus using direct heat. 

Tender cuts. 

Only the tender cuts should be 
cooked with dry heat. After the 
meat has been quickly seared with 
intense heat to retain the juices, the 
temperature should be lowered dur- 
ing the remainder of the cooking. 
Even thetenderest cuts of meat may be toughened by cooking 
at too high a temperature. The tender cuts are fine grained 
and require less time for cooking than do the tough cuts. 




Fig. 120.— Cuts of pork. 



MEAT AND POULTRY 513 

Broiling and roasting, which develop a fine flavor, can be 
used only for tender cuts. The best cuts for broiling are porter- 
house, sirloin, cross cut of rump steak, and the second and third 
cuts from the top of the round. Porterhouse and sirloin steaks 
are the most expensive because of the loss of bone and fat. 
Round steaks are juicy, but they have a coarser fiber and are 
not so tender as porterhouse and sirloin. 

Steaks should be cut at least one inch thick; they may be as 
thick as two or three inches. 

Most of the fat on steaks should be tried out, clarified, and 
used for shortening. 

The best cuts for roasting are the middle of the sirloin, the 
back of the rump, and the first three ribs. The tip of the sir- 
loin and the back of the rump make large roasts that are more 
economical than the sirloin. Rib roasts contain more fat 
and are somewhat cheaper than other roasts. 

Tough cuts. 

The tough cuts are the ones containing muscles which the 
animal has used most actively and include the shin, knuckle, 
and round of the leg, the neck, and the shoulder. 

Methods of making tough meats tender are chopping, adding 
fat, marinating with oil and vinegar, long slow cooking in moist 
heat at a low temperature, and breaking the fibers by pounding 
them with a sharp instrument. Tough cuts of meat require 
long, slow cooking to be made tender and palatable. Tough 
ends of the tender cuts, such as porterhouse steak, should be 
cut off and specially cooked in such a way that they can be 
utilized, instead of being cooked in the same way as the tender 
part and then discarded because of their toughness. If it is 
desired to extract some of the nutritive material and flavor for 
soup, sauce, or gravy, the meat should be put into cold water and 
heated slowly. Tough cuts that are to be used for stew may be 
cut in small pieces and browned before the long, slow cooking, 
if this browned flavor is liked. Meat cooked for a stew may be 
drained, rolled in egg and buttered crumbs, and browned for 
variety. The broth may be thickened and served as gravy. 



514 .1 MAXIM. OF IIOME-MAKIXG 

Swiss ntcak 

\]/z pounds round sl<';ik, }^-l rup (lour 

\} 2 to 2 inches thick 3 slicos hjicon 

1 small onion Salt and pepper 

I'ountl the flour into i)oth sides of llur piece of steak. Cook the hacon 
and sliced onion luitil brown. Add the meat, brown each side, and add 
water or tomato juice barely to cover the steak. Cover and simmer it 
on the stove or i)lace it in the oven. When it is half done, season with salt 
and pepper. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR SOUP-M.\KING 

Soups may be cla.s.sifiecl as follows: Soups with stock, as bouil- 
lon, brown stock, white stock, consomme, lamb stock; soups 
without stock, as cream soups, purees, bisques; and chowders. 
Only soups with stock will be considered here. Cream soups 
have white sauce as a basis (page 552). Since the purpose in 
making soup is to draw out as much food substance and flavor- 
ing material as possible, the bones or meat should be placed in 
cold water and should be heated slowly. 

Bones arc likely to be better utilized if a receptacle is kept for 
soup materials only; then every few days the soup kettle may 
be placed on the stove. If the soup kettle is always kept on 
the stove and especially if the amount of material is large, as in 
the case of hotel soup kettles, there is danger of food poisoning 
because the repeated heating and cooling of the meat antl broth 
furnishes excellent conditions for the growth of certain harmful 
microorganisms. If sparingly used, fresh pork and ham l)oncs 
make good additions to soup. If there is a small amount of 
soup stock on hand, it may lie used with the water from boiled 
potatoes, rice, celeiy, and the like, to make a delicious soup. 
Soup stock may be used in white sauce or brown sauce to im- 
prove the flavor. 

If clear soup is wished, only bones should be used, because 
meat would have to be strained out and would probably be 
wasted. Meat that has been used for making soup has lost its 
flavor but not its nutritive qualities; consequently, if a house- 
keeper wishes to be thrifty, she will boil the soup meat for a 
shorter time, or until it is tender, and serve it with the soup. 



MEAT AND POULTRY 



515 



A soup made in this way with the addition of rice, pearl bar- 
ley, macaroni, or vegetables makes an appetizing luncheon 
dish. 



Bouillon 

4 pounds of meat without bone 

4 pints cold water 

1 3^ teaspoons salt 

10-12 peppercorns 

4 cloves 

1 cup canned tomato, if desired 



H teaspoon pepper 
^2 teaspoon sweet herbs 
Bay leaf 

IJ^ tablespoons each of carrot, 
onion, celery 



To make bouillon : (1 ) Use a kettle with a tight-fitting cover to keep in the 
flavors; (2) wipe the meat with a damp cloth; (3) trim off undesirable por- 
tions; (4) cut in small pieces; (5) place the meat in the kettle; (6) cover it 
with cold water and allow it to stand H hour; (7) bring it to the simmering 
point, 180° F., and cook it for 5 or 6 hours, never allowing the soup to 
boil; (8) add the vegetables and seasonings 1 hour before serving; (9) 
strain off the liquid and set it away uncovered to cool. 



Brown soup stock 

6 pounds shin of beef 

3 quarts cold water 

K teaspoon peppercorns 

6 cloves 

J^ bay leaf 

3 sprigs thyme 



1 sprig marjoram 
3 sprigs parsley 
Carrots 



Turnips 

Onion 

Celery 

1 tablespoon salt 



J/^ cup of each cut 
in dice 



To make brown soup stock: (1) Wipe the beef; (2) cut the lean meat in 
cubes; (3) brown one-third of it in a frying pan in marrow from the marrow 
bones; (4) put the remaining two-thirds with the bone and fat in the soup 
kettle; (5) let it stand for 30 minutes; (6) add the browned meat, and heat 
it gradually to the boiling point; (7) remove the scum; (8) cover the 
kettle and cook the meat slowly for 6 hours; (9) add the vegetables 1 hour 
before it is done; (10) strain the stock; (11) cool it as quickly as possible; 
(12) clarify it. 



White soup stock 

4 pounds of knuckle of veal 

1 pound lean beef 

2 quarts boiling water 
6 slices carrot 

1 onion 



1 large stalk celery 

3^ teaspoon peppercorns 
3^ bay leaf 

2 sprigs thyme 
2 cloves 



Follow the directions for bouillon. 



,')!(•) 



.1 MAMAL OF HOME MAKlSd 



TAHLK XXXI. 


— Mkats vi)\i Son 


' AND Hhoth 


Meal 


\W-i(jht in piiunila 


Shin soup lioncs 




l-l 


Hind sliiiiik soup hones 


1 -i") 


Knuckle souj) bone 

Oxtuil 


:j-7 

1 -2 




1 ;{ 


Beef shoulder c1(j(1 

Beef round 


1-2 
1-2 


ShouldcT of mutton 


1-2 


Neck of mutton 

Shanks of mutton 


1-2 
1-11 1 J 



CARE OF MEAT 

Meat should Ix^ removed from the wrapping paper as soon 
as it conies from the market , since tlie pa])er absorbs some of the 
juices. 

Before meat is cooked, it shoukl be wiped with a cloth wrung 
out of cold water. It should never be allowed to stand in a pan 
of cold water, since the juices are in this way drawn out. 

Meat must ])e kept cool in a refrigerator, a cool cellar, a 
spring-house or a well. It must also be carefully protected 
from flies. 

Since broth offers excellent conditions for the growth of bac- 
teria, it should be drained off meat that is to be kept for any 
length of time before lacing served. 

If conditions for keeping meat are very unfavorable, it may 
be dipped into a large quantity of boiling water. This does not 
seriously affect its flavor, and it tends to prevent the meat from 
spoiling. Veal and pork may be partly cooked before being 
stored. 

When canned meats are opened, they spoil more quickly 
perhaps than fresh meats; therefore, they should be consumed 
with as little delay as possible. Under no circumstances .should 
they be left in a tin can after it is opened. 



MEAT AND POULTRY 



517 



to CD 10 00 00 
I I I I I 
M (N (N ?; C^ 



CD O CJ <N W lO 
I I I I I I 
CO C<I -H ,-( ,-1 (N 



O ^ O 



o M Ph O « O 



^ o -^ -S "o 

a 






^ ^ I- £ 0) 2 



„ ^ cc ^ ,-, 
I I I I I 



.3 O 



■a == 



Ph CLi M O rt 



CO (N >0 lO M 
I I I I I 
Nfi i-H (N C^ \n 



C^ .-H y-t 



:^^ 



I rt " 

J=3 -ti 



^ -^ 



t ■§ ;§ § a 

o — i: o o 
Pu O tZ « H 



m ^ 






sis 

ai o o 

V V a> 
> > > 



r)is 



.1 u i\r 1/. or noMi: u.i/vV.vr; 





z 

K 



o 
U 

\f 

2 

a 



fa 


If 
^1 


M CI - 

— — ce X r» -/: -. -j -r -r c« 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 
n n n n f c-i -.o n n ?i — 


3 

1 

c 


For boiling 

Leg of pork 

Smoked ham 

Pork shoulder, fresh 

Pork shoulder, smoked 

Pork hoeks 

Baek bones and neck bones 

Leg of mutton 

Shoulder of mutton 

Shoulder of lamb 
For stewing 

Breast of mutton 

Breast of lamb 


z 



o 
U 

b« 

O 

>< 

a 
a 

o 


^ 5 
fe a. 


M M \^ 

oo--— '"xio — ooo O'»<'>»'oaooe 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 L 
(N cc « \?> M v^ o P5 CO \r< (N ec n;^ lA IS 


3 

5 

a 


Pork loin 
Leg of pork 
Smoked ham 
Pork tenderloin 
Shoulder of pork 
Spare ribs 
Leg of mutton 
Loin of mutton 
Shoulder of mutton 

I^g of lamb 
Loin of lamb 
Shoulder of lamb 
Crown roast of lamb 
Hindquarter spring lamb 
Forequarter spring lamb 




o 
o 
O 

o 
B 


|| 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

-■ \» -^ ti jC_^^ 




Pork steak 

Pork chops 

Salt pork 

Fancy breakfast bacon 

Medium to fat bacon 

Mutton chops 

Lamb chops 



MEAT AND POULTRY 519 

KEEPING MEAT * 

After slaughtering, the meat undergoes several changes. 
Immediatel}^ after being killed, the flesh, especially in young 
and well-nourished animals, is juicy and tender. On account 
of the clotting of the myosin, after a short time rigor mortis 
ensues and the meat becomes stiff and hard. In the third stage 
to which the meat soon passes, it becomes again soft and tender, 
owing in part to the action of lactic acid on the sarcolemma and 
connective tissue. This process should not, however, be al- 
lowed to go too far, or the meat will become "high" and have 
a disagreeable odor and flavor. 

This development of the lactic acid rendering the meat tender, 
is called "ripening" of the meat. Refrigeration retards this 
process, hence meats can be kept fresh for a considerable time 
at a low temperature (below 40° F.) . The experiments by P. F. 
Trowbridge,! show that as long as the amount of lactic acid 
continues to increase, the meat appears to be improving in 
quality. At a certain stage, however, basic bodies begin to 
separate, which neutrahze the lactic acid and thus cause a de- 
crease in the amount of this free acid. The meat is still edible 
after this decrease has begun, but whenever enough basic 
bodies are Hberated to neutralize the lactic acid, the meat has 
then reached a stage of incipient putrefaction and is no longer 
fit for food. 

Game is often allowed to "hang" until the changes of de- 
composition are well marked and in this condition it is highly 
reUshed by epicures. 

USE OF MARKET TRIMMINGS AND MEAT FAT IN COOKING | 

Market trimmings vary with the customs of the locality and 
the character of the cuts bought, but it is certain that a saving 
can be made if the trimmings are brought home and used in 
cooking or for other purposes. 

* Bailey, E. H. S. The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products, 
t Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. 

j Usher, Susannah. Waste of Meat in the Home. Part II. Cornell 
Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 109. 



r)2() .1 MAXIM. (IF ll'iMi: MAKlXa 

After licin^ tiicd out and claiilicd, all sweet suet from market 
and lioiiie I liiiiiiiiiius of Ix'ef and mutton, drippinjis from roasts, 
liaeon fat, fresh jxirk fat, aiul sausiine fat can lie combined or 
used sinj;ly in cooking, l-'or frying crofiuettes, Kreaded cliops, 
Frencli fried potatoes, and tlie like, a mixture of various fats, 
such as l)eef, mutton, and liaeon, is excellent. The cracklings 
from tried-out suot arc good for shortening in corn cakes and 
suet puddings. 

In buying suet separately, it should he remembered that 
fats from all ])arts of the animal do not melt at the same tem- 
perature. For examjjle, cod suet melts at a lower temperature 
and is, therefore, a softer fat than is kidney suet. For some 
kinds of cooking the softer fat is much to be preferred. 

In geneial, fats are almost completel}' digested, although ex- 
periments indicate that fats with low melting points, such as 
butter and olive oil, are digested more completely than tho.se 
with high melting points, such as mutton fat and beef fat. 

Tenipcrafurc of cooking. 

More important, however, than the kind of fat eaten, is the 
method of treatment of fat in the process of cooking. Fat foods 
that are badly cooked or other foods that are poorly cooked in 
fat are often unsuspected soiu'ces of digestive troubles. Over- 
heating fat, that is, heating it to the point where blue smoke 
is visible, causes decomposition with the formation of substances 
that are irritating to the digestive tract. It is suggested that 
the absorption of certain of these materials into the blood stream 
may cause disturbances more far-reaching than is yet known. 

On the other hand, cooking food in fat at too low a tempera- 
ture is not without ill effects, as it causes the fat to be soaked 
up and the food to be covered with layers of fat; this retards 
the action of the digestive juices and causes delay in the reason- 
ably prompt passage of food from the stomach. 

Flavor and hardness. 

Two objections are usually offered to the utilization in cook- 
ing processes of the harder fats, such as beef and mutton, 



MEAT AND POULTRY 521 

namely, the flavor and the hardness. The hardness may be 
overcome by mixing them with softer fats, such as lard and cot- 
tonseed oil. The flavor may be modified by careful rendering 
and by disguising it as in savory fat. 

Various combinations of fats may be used; for example, one 
part of bacon fat and two parts of mutton fat, one part of lard 
or fresh pork drippings and two parts of mutton fat, one part 
of sausage fat and two parts of mutton fat. Many housekeepers 
say that they do not have time to mix the fats together in ac- 
curate proportions; they therefore mix their hard and soft 
fats in any amounts that happen to be at hand, generally with 
good results. Of course, such a mixture is softer than either 
mutton or beef fat alone. 

If the harder fats are used for shortening, they must be kept 
in a warm place for some time before they are used, in order 
that they may become soft; otherwise, extra time and strength 
are expended in order to work them into the flour for biscuits 
and pastry and to cream the shortening and sugar for cake. 
Under any circumstances, it seems a little more difficult to work 
them into the flour than is the case with butter. In ginger 
cookies and gingerbread, where the shortening is melted before 
it is added, this difficulty is not apparent. 

If other fats are substituted for butter, salt must be added to 
take the place of the salt in the butter. 

Mutton fat. 

Mutton fat combined with the softer fats is most satisfactory 
for all kinds of biscuits, muffins, and cakes that are to be served 
hot, or at least on the same day on which they are baked. 
The "furry" feeling in the mouth that comes from eating 
hard fats is less noticeable if the products arc eaten with hot 
drinks or fruit sauces. Lemon juice adtled for part of the liquid 
in cakes also lessens this "furry" feeling. 

Mutton fat is excellent in all cases in which a small amount 
of shortening is used and when spices and molasses help to 
mask the mutton flavor. In cakes made with mutton fat, 
vanilla, and chocolate are successful flavors. Cakes do not have 



r)22 .1 M.wiAL or iinMi; makixc 

so fine a j^raiii ami do iidt keep so well wlicii tlicy arc nia(I(> with 
mutton t"a1 as w hen llicy aic made with Imttcr. 

Certainly nniildn lat can lie iililizcil to a jfi'catcr cxf cnt than 
is jz;(Mi(M-all\- thoutihl. If handled skillfully in the [jrcparatioii, 
tlio products arc not only satisfactory hut excellent. 

Tests for the use of mutton fat gave the following results: * 
" It would make for economy if mutton fat wei-e more com- 
monly used in the kitchen. For this reason, tests were made of 
dilTerent ways of modifying the flavor so that the mutton fat 
might be more generally used in cooking. The most satisfac- 
tory method found was to mix some leaf lard with the suet and 
render with milk. The suet and leaf lard mixture was finely 
divided by i)assing it through a meat grinder, and was heatcn:! in 
a double boiler with about one-half of its weight of w'hole milk. 
The fat was quickly released from the tissues, and, when al- 
lowed to cool, formed a cake on the surface of the liquid, which 
was easily removed. Mutton suet and leaf lard, fresh and of 
good qualit}^, 'tried out' in this way, possessed little, if any, 
of the characteristic mutton odor and flavor. The best results 
were obtained with a mixture of two parts of mutton suet and 
one of leaf lard, finely ground, rendered with whole milk in pro- 
portion of one-half pint to two jiounds of the mixed mutton and 
laixl. This fat had an exceptionally good odor and flavor, which 
it retained when kept foi- weeks in an ordinary refrigerator. 
It was also of good color and tc^xture, being softer than the mut- 
ton fat alone, owdng to the milk fat and lard which it contained. 
If such fats are rendered in an open kettle, a moderate heat 
is desirable, since the}' 'burn out ' very readil}-. Rendering in a 
double boiler is much more convenient. In numerous test-s, 
such fat proved satisfactory either alone or with a little butter 
for use in cooking vegetables and for other purposes." 

Clarified fat. 

Various methods are used to clarify fat. A pinch of baking 
soda whitens the fat and also helps to keep it sweet. Baking 

* Langwortliy, C F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Mutton and its Value in 
the Diot. Farmers' Hull. 526, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 



MEAT AND POULTRY 523 

soda is used to whiten lard in the proportion of about 13^^ ounces 
to 100 pounds of lard. It is stirred into the hot lard after the 
cracklings are strained out. 

The following directions may be found useful in clarifying fat:* 
"Excepting when the purpose of clarifying fat is to remove 
flavors, a good method to follow is to pour boiling water over the 
fat, to boil thoroughly, and then to set it away to cool. The 
cold fat may be removed in a solid cake and any impurities 
clinging to it may be scraped off, as they will be found at the 
bottom of the layer. By repeating this process two or three 
times a cake of clean, white fat may be obtained." 

"A slight burned taste or similar objectionable flavors often 
can be removed from fat by means of potatoes. After melting 
the fat, put into it thick slices of raw potatoes; heat gradually. 
When the fat .ceases to bubble and the potatoes are brown, 
strain through a cloth placed in a wire strainer." 

Savory fat.'\ 

"Savory fat may be easily prepared. For each pound of the 
carefully rendered mutton fat, allow an onion, a sour apple, 
and a teaspoonful of ground thyme or mixed herbs tied up in a 
small piece of cloth. Cook these in the fat, at a low temperature 
in the oven or on top of the stove, until the onion and apple 
are thoroughly browned. Then strain off the fat, which will be 
found well seasoned and may be used in place of butter or other 
savory fat for seasoning or for warming of potatoes, cooking 
vegetables, and in other ways. Winter or Hubbard squash 
cooked in the mutton fat until it is brown was also found in this 
laboratory to impart a savory flavor. The savoriness produced 
by the use of fruits and vegetables in this way seems to be due 
to the solution in the fat of specific flavoring bodies present in 
the fruits, vegetables, or herbs, and to the fat taking up some 
of the caramelized carbohydrate formed when the fruit or vege- 
table browns." 

* Langworthy, C. F., and Hunt, Caroline L. Economical Use of Meat 
in the Home. Farmers' Bull. 391, U. S. Dept. Agr. 
' t Farmers' Bull. 526. 



.524 A u.t.vr.t/. or HOME m.xkisc 

( IIICKKN.S AND FOWLS (kKANCES VINTON WARD) 

("liickcMs liMVc soft, smooth Ic^.s :iini feet, a soft floxil)l»: 
l)rcast hoiic, pin leal hers, few hairs, a tciidcr skin, and they arc 
lean. 

I^jwls ha\(' haid scaly feet, a haid liicasi IxjIic, loii):; hairs, 
a tough, thick skin, and the intestines are surrounded by fat. 

Dressing and cleaning poultry. 

Poultry must l)o prepared for eookinp; by careful cleaning 
and dressing. The following directions may be carried out: 

Pick out all stray i)in feathers. Singe the liird hy holding it over a 
flame until the hairs are burned off. Slip the point of the wings behind 
the .shoulder l)lades, to give steadines.s to the body while working with it. 
Cut off the head, push l)aek the .skin, and cut the neck close to the l)ody. 
Through the neck opening, loosen the crop from the skin which surrounds 
it. If the croj) is full, lift it and cut the tube connecting it with the giz- 
zard, reaching down between the brea~t bones as far as po.ssible. An empty 
crop, loosened from the breast skin, may be drawn out with the intestines. 
If dressing a fowl, cut a lengthwise slit aljout one inch long in the skin of 
the leg just below the leg joint. In.sert a .skewer, and pick up the white 
tendons, one at a time, pulling each away from the hip toward the foot 
until it breaks loose. When all are loo.sened, cut around the leg through 
the skin just below the joint, bend the joint backward till it breaks, and 
cut through the cords to remove the leg. Cut a lengthwise slit through 
the skin and fat at the rear just below the breast bone and toward the 
vent. Cut around the vent. With the fowl lying on its back, in.sert the 
hand in this oi)ening, passing it over the intestines, between them and 
the breast bone. Press the hand forward imtil the heart can be felt, 
curving the fingers around the internal organs including the heart; pull 
strongly, holding the fowl in place with the other hand, until the organs 
are drawn out. Slip the heart from its sack, and cut it free from its blood 
ves.sels. Cut the intestine close to the gizzard. Cut acro.ss the white 
tendon on one side of this, being very careful not to cut the inner lining, 
and turn the outer muscular coat inside out, awaj' from the inner coat with 
its contents intact. With a 'sharp knife peel off the interlining, and cut 
away the outer tendons. Cut away the liver in two lobes, discarding the 
part discolored by the gall bladder. Be careful not to cut the latter. 
Should this occur, every part of the meat which has been touched by it 
must lie cut away, after carefully washing the knife which cut it. The 
l)itter taste is very persistent. Find the lungs, attached to the ribs on the 
upper side of the body near the head, and remove them carefully. A small 
amount left will cause discoloration and give an unpleasant flavor. Re- 



MEAT AND POULTRY 525 

move the very dark glands lying in hollows close to the backbone near 
the tail. Wipe the bird thoroughly, inside and out. 

Cooking poultry. 

Chicken may be stuffed and roasted, but fowl should be 
stewed slowly for a long time, preferably in a tireless cooker. 

To roasl chicken. — Make a stuffing of dried breadcrumbs, moistened 
with as much milk as it will absorb and seasoned as desired with 1 table- 
spoon of butter, J^ teaspoon of salt, a little pepper, and sage or poultry 
seasoning to each cup of crumbs. Fill the crop region about two-thirds 
full, and tie the end of the sldn of the neck. Fill the body region about 
two-thirds full, and fasten the opening by sticking tooth picks across it 
through both flaps of the skin, then lacing string across the tooth picks. 
Insert two long skewers through the chicken, one just beneath the legs, 
the other through the wings (now released from their position behind the 
shoulder blades) and the breast. Tie the legs together, and draw them 
down by means of the string to the tail, continuing the string to fasten 
around the skewers and the legs. Cross the strings over the back, and 
wind them around the skewers under the wings, tying them together over 
the back. Note that there is no string across the breast, and a fowl served 
breast side up, with the string removed, shows no mark of the string. 
Place the chicken in a covered roasting pan with a little water in the bot- 
tom. If the chicken is not very fat, butter or oil the skin, sprinkle it with 
salt, pepper, and flour, and bake it from 1 to IJ^ hours in a moderately 
hot oven. Wash the breast, gizzard, neck, and liver. Stew them in suffi- 
cient water to cover them, adding the liver after cooldng the others an 
hour. 

To stew chicken. — If chicken is to be cut up before being cooked, as in 
stewing, the dressing is much simplified. After cutting the lengthwise 
slit into the abdominal cavity, bend out the leg and cut the skin between 
it and the body, following the outline of the thigh up to the hip bone. 
The leg will separate from the body and when bent far enough back, the 
hip joint will break and the leg may be cut free. When both legs have 
been removed, lay them skin down and feel for the joint between the thigh 
and "drum stick." Cut across this through the tendon and break the 
joint, separating the two parts by cutting through the flesh. Cut from the 
mid point of the slit in the abdomen through the thin muscle which under- 
lay the hip straight to the hip joint. Bend back the back of the chicken, 
breaking the backbone near this point. The organs may now easily be 
removed as before. Lift the wing, and cut from the under side up, dis- 
locating the bone to find the joint. Note the cartilaginous joints in the 
ribs at each side, and cut through these regions to the shoulder, to separate 
the back from the breast, dislocating the shoulder blade from the breast 
bone at the forward end and cutting the two apart. Remove the lungs 



520 A MAMAL OF HOME U.l/v'/W/ 

and glands. Wipo the fowl ius hcfurc. (.'ouk tin- Kil)lits si-panitrly. Add 
onoiiuli l)uiliiin wattT just to cover the fowl, sitiiiiHT it la niimifcs, add 1 
tablespoon of salt, and plaee it in a fireless cooker for a or ti hours. He- 
move it and if not yet lender, reheat it and cook it again. To .'<erve meat 
cooked in this way, thicken X\w gravy and make dumplings, serving the 
meat in the gravy; or remove the meat, siiut6 it, and serv<' the thickened 
gravy se[)arat(>ly. The meat may be removed from the bones and skin 
and ground. The liquor may be cleared, well .seasoned, and thickene<l 
with gelatin, using 1 tablespoon of gelatin to I pint of licjuor. .Stir in the 
meat as the gelatin ijcgins to tliicken, and serve it in slices, cold. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
FISH AND OYSTERS 

By Winifred Moses 

Fish is an excellent animal food. Many kinds of sea fish 
that have heretofore not been used are, through the efforts of 
the United States Bureau of Fisheries, coming into the markets. 
This is an economic policy, since fish is one animal food in the 
production of which food that might otherwise be used for 
human beings is not needed. Facilities for packing and shipping 
fish have been so improved within the last few years that it is 
now possible for almost all inland communities to obtain good 
sea fish. Some kind of fresh water fish is almost always avail- 
able inland. 

fish 
Fish may be divided into two classes according to the 
amount of fat contained in their flesh: (1) white fish, or fish with 
flesh that contains little oil, the fat being secreted in the liver 
— to this class belong cod, haddock, halibut, turbot, flounder, 
trout, whitefish, smelts, perch; (2) oily fish, or fish in which 
the fat is distributed throughout the flesh — to this class belong 
salmon, eels, mackerel, bluefish, swordfish, shad, herring, cusk. 

Selection and care of fish 
The freshness of fish may be determined as follows: (1) The 
flesh should be firm; (2) the eyes should be bright and bulging; 
(3) the gills should be red; (4) when placed in fresh water the 
fish should sink, not float. 

To care for fish properly, it shouldbe cleaned and drawn im- 
mediately, wiped dry, and kept on ice with the skin down, 
avoiding contact with other foods. Frozen fish may be thawed 

527 



528 .1 MAM AL or IIOMH MAKIXC 

I)\- placiii^i it ill cdld water. Salt li<li should always l)P soaked 
it) cold water, skin side up. 

/'npnnition of fish for cooking 

To pi('pan> a fish for cooking; it must ho cloanod, skinned an<l 
honed. 

To elean a fish the scales should he icnioved hy scraping the 
fish from the tail to the head with a small sharp knife, and the 
fins removed I)y makinj>; an incision as close as possihle to each 
side of the fin. The tail should then he cut off. If the fish is to 
he i)akc(l, the head and tail arc left on, hut the eyes removed. 
The hody is opened hy cutting from the gills along the front to 
the tail, the entrails removed, the inside cleaned, scraped, and 
washed out with cold water, and the fish then Aviped dry. 

To skin a fish the fins should he removetl and the skin slit 
along the hack and around the head and tail. The hand should 
he dipped in salt to keep it from slipping. The skin is then loo.s- 
cncd helow the head and drawn from the head down to the tail 
on one side of the hody and then drawn from the oth(>r side of 
the hod3^ 

To bone a fish it should first he cleaned and skinned as di- 
rected. One should then begin at the tail and with a sharp knife 
under the flesh close to the l)ackbone follow the bone its entire 
length, making as ck^an a cut as possible. This removes the 
flesh from one side of the fish. The fish may then be turned and 
the flesh removed from the other side, and any small bones that 
remain may l)e picked out. 

Methods of cooking fish 

Boiled fish . 

To boil small irholcfish: (1) Clean the fish, loavinp; the head, tail, and fins, 
but removing the eyes; (2) weigh it; {'.i) plaee it on a raek in a fish kettle 
or coil it in a frying l)a.sket, and place it in an iron kettle; (4) cover it with 
warm water (Boiling water causes the flesh to contract and crack; cold 
water draws out tiie juices. Salmon, however, must l)e plunged in boiling 
water to preserve^ the color); (.')) for each 2 quarts of water a(kl 1 teaspoon 
of salt and 1 tal)l(>sp<)on of vinegar or lemon juice; (G) bring the water 
quickly to the boiling point; (7) .sinuner the fish until it is done, allowing 
from 5 to 8 minutes to the pound according to the tliickness of the flesh; 



FISH AND OYSTERS 



529 



or cook it until the flesh will separate from the bones; (8) drain it; (9) re- 
move it to a folded napkin on a hot platter; (10) garnish it with parsley 
and lemon. 

To boil pieces of fish cut from a large fish: (1) Clean the fish; (2) wrap it 
in a piece of cheese-cloth and tie it; (3) proceed as in boiling whole fish. 

Cotirt bouillon is used for boiling fresh water fish that have little flavor. 
Brown in 1 tablespoon of fat, 1 chopped carrot, 1 chopped onion, 1 stalk 
of celery; add 2 quarts of hot water, 1 cup vinegar, 3 peppercorns, 3 cloves, 
1 bay leaf, 1 teaspoon salt and any fish trimmings; strain the liquid before 
putting the fish into it. 

TABLE XXXIV. — Fish that may be Boiled, and Sauces, Garnishes, 
AND Vegetables Suitable for Each 



Fish 


Sauce 


Garnish 


Vegetables 


Haddock 


Egg 


Parsley, cress 


Potato balls 


Salmon 


Tartar 


Cress 


Asparagus, carrots 




HoUandaise 


Lemon 


French beans 




Egg 


Parsley 


Rice 


Halibut 


Bechamel 


Cress 


Potato croquettes 




HoUandaise 


Parsley 


Tomatoes, green salad 


Cod 


Butter 




Mashed potatoes 




Caper 




Carrots 




Shrimp 




Turnips 




Oyster 




Beets, greens 


Mackerel 


Caper 

Parsley 






Flounder 

Trout 


Bechamel 
Horse-radish 


Chopped parsley 


Carrots, turnips 


Sole 


Bechamel 




Carrots, spinach 



Baked fish. 

To bake whole dry fish: (1) Clean the fish, leaving the head and tail on, 
but removing the eyes; (2) stuff the fish with any fish stuffing desired; 
(3) sew up the fish; (4) place the fish on a greased rack or fish sheet in a 
fish pan or if these are not obtainable, place buttered strips of cheese-cloth 
under the fish, by means of which the fish may be lifted from the pan with- 
out being broken; (5) truss the fish in the shape of the letter S, doing 
this by a means of a long skewer thrust through it from head to tail; 
(6) cut three gashes on each side of the fish; (7) insert a thin slice of salt 
pork in each gash; (8) dust the fish with salt and pepper; (9) sprinkle it 
with flour; (10) put it in a hot oven, and bake it, allowing 15 minutes for 
each pound; (11) baste it frequently; (12) remove the fish to a hot platter; 
(13) remove the slices of pork; (14) fill the gashes with parsley; (15) gar- 



r:.M) 



,1 M \ \ IM. or lldME M \KJ\C; 



hish ihi- \\>\\ Willi li'iiiori; (id) strain tin- fat Id \»- used ;i- .'i fuimdalion fdp 
sauce. 

'/'<> IkiLi- fal Ji.sli: Proceed as for dry lisli, hut it.'iiil ihr iturk. 

TAHM'! XXXV. — l'"i.sii that may hk Bakkd Wiiolk, and SAr«KK, 
(lAUNisnKS, and Vkc;ktahij:s Suitaiu.k kok Kach 



Fish 


•Sauce 


(Janiiah 


Wgc tabic 


Haddock 

Bluefish 

Cod 

Mackerel 

Shad 

Sea Ijiuss 

Tile fish 

Weak fish 


DrawTi butt(T 
Egg 

Hollandaise 
Shrimp 

Oyster 

Lemon juice 

Tomato 
Maitre d'hotel 
Lemon juice 


Lemon 
Parsley 

Potato hall 
Lemon 
Parsley 
Cucumber 

Lemon 

Tomatoes 

Lemon 

Parsley 

Parsley 


Mashed potatoes 

Mashed potatoes 
Tomatoes 







To bake cutlets and fillets: (I) Wipe the fish dry; (2) dust it with salt 
and pepper; (3) season it with lemon juice, if desired; (4) sprinkle it with 
bits of butter; (5) add }/> fnp of water or other liquid; (6) place the fish in 
a hot oven allowing from 5 to S minutes for each pound, according to the 
thickness of the fish. 

TABLE XXXVL — Fish that may he Baked in Steaks, Cutlets, or 
Fillets, with Sauces, Garnishes and Vegetables Siitaule for 

EACH 



Fish 


Sauce 


Garnish 


Vegetables 


Halibut 

Haddock 

Salmon 

Flounder 

Cusk 

Horse mackerel . . 
Tile 


Hollandaise 

Tomato 

Brown 

Oyster 

Bernaise 

Bercy 

Lemon juice 
Lemon juice 
Tomato 


Pur6e of peas 

Tomatoes 

O^'sters 

Lemon 

Parsley 

Shrimps 

Siftetl egg yolk 


Potato balls 

Onions 

Green peas, potatoes 



FISH AND OYSTERS 



531 



Broiled fish. 

To broil fi^h rvhole: (1) Clean the fish; (2) split large fish down the back, 
but do not split small fish; (3) if desired, remove the head and the tail; 

(4) brush the fish with melted butter or oil seasoned with salt and pepper; 

(5) place the fish, flesh side down on a well-greased broiler; (6) cook it for 
from 10 to 20 minutes according to the thickness of the fish, turning it often; 
(7) if the fish is thick, place the dripping pan under the broiler, and baste 
the fish with butter once or twice during the cooking and finish the cooking 
in the oven; (8) carefully separate the fish from the broiler, and slide it on 
to a hot platter; (9) spread it with maitre d 'hotel butter. 

To broil slices of fish: (1) Cut the fish into slices 1 inch thick; (2) wipe 
it dry; (3) season it, and proceed as in the case of broiled whole fish. 

TABLE XXXVII. — Fish that may be Broiled, with Sauces, Gar- 
nishes, AND Vegetables Suitable for each 



Fish 


Sauce 


Garnish 


Vegetables 


Cusk 








Bluefish 








Horse mackerel . . 








Trout 




Lemon 


French fried po- 
tatoes 


Cod 


Melted butter 


Parsley, lemon 


Boiled potatoes, 




Tomato 




carrots, green 
peas, beans, 
beets, spinach 


Hahbut 


Butter 


Parsley 


Peas, beans, 
beets, spinach 


Tile fish 








Mackerel 


Maitre d'hotel 


Lemon, cucumber 


Mashed potato 


Scrod 








Shad.- 


Maitre d'hotel 


Radishes, parsley 


Duchess potato 


Smelts 


Bechamel 






Sword fish 


Cucumber, 
horse-radish 






Shad roe 


Maitre d'hotel 


Lemon quarters 




Pompano 


Fricassee of 








clams 




Potato 



Sauted fish. 

To saute fish steaks: (1) Clean the steaks; (2) wipe them dry; (3) season 
them with pepper and salt; (4) dip them in granulated cornmeal; (5) try 
out slices of salt pork; (6) remove the scraps of pork; (7) saut6 the steaks 
in the fat, until they are a delicate brown on both sides. 



o.'VJ .1 MA.MAL nr HOME MAKIXd 

Fricil ftslt. 

To fry s7tinU vholc fi.\h and fillets af fish: (\) ('loan tho fish; (2) wash it; 
(;}) dry it; (4) season it willi jx-ppcr and salt; {!>) roll it in flour; (ti) roll 
if in (>kk; (") roll it in hrcadcrurnljs; (K) put in a frying Inuskcf ; (9) dip it 
in doc'[) hot fat (17')° C), and cook it for (iO seconds or until the fixh is a 
delicate brown color; (10) drain it; (11) remove it to soft pai)er for further 
draining; (12) serve it on a folded napkin. 

Carving fish 
To carve a baked or hoilod fisli, a silver knifo anrl fork should 
he used. The head of fhe fisli should first he reiiK)ve(l and then 
the length of the hack cut down as close as possible to the bone, 
the nearer half of the fish being cut in tluck slices. When all the 
flesh is n^nioved from one side, the platter or the fish should be 
turned and the flesh removed from tiie other side. 

OYSTERS 

Oysters arc among the most commonl}- used of the shell 
fish. The bivalves, including oysters, mussels, clams, and scal- 
lops, have white flesh and are easily digested. The crustaceans, 
including lolxsters, crabs, and shrimps, have red fle.sh and are 
more difficult to digest than are the fish of white flesh. 

Oysters are in season from September to May. They arc 
wholesome but not so palatable during the other months. Al- 
though oysters arc not very nutritious, they have a place in the 
diet since they serve as appetizers. The tough muscle and gills 
are not as easily digested as the remainder of the body. When 
these are removed, as they often are before cooking, the oyster 
is said to be bearded. 

Selection and preparation of oysters 
Only fresh oysters should be selected. Oysters are now trans- 
ported in containers surrounded by ice. Pre.scM'vat ives are not 
used. When i)ossible, oysters should be liought in the shell. 

To open an oyster shell one should first wash the shells thor- 
oughly with a brush and plenty of water. A thin flat knife 
may then l)e pushed undci- (he upper valve, the muscle that 
holds it in the shell cut, and the upper shell or valve, raised and 
lifted off. 



FJSH AND OYSTERS 533 

To clean the oysters after they have been opened, they should 
be placed in a colander, the colander placed over a bowl and 
cold water poured over the oysters, using 3^ cup of water to 1 
quart of oysters. Each oyster should be examined carefully, 
and any bits of shell removed. The liquor is then poured off 
carefully, and reserved for use in sauces. 

Methods of serving oysters 
Oysters may be served either raw or cooked. When raw they 
are served generally on the half shell, in cocktails, or with 
vinegar sauce. When cooked, they may be roasted, panned, 
broiled, sauted, fried, served in sauces, scalloped, served in 
stews, in pastry cups, in croustades, or bread cases. 

To serve oysters on the half shell. 

(1) Use small varieties, such as blue points; (2) serve the oysters raw 
only when they are perfectly fresh; (3) open the oysters; (4) clean them; 
(5) chill them; (6) arrange a bed of cracked ice on each plate; (7) arrange 
from four to six of the deeper valves on this ice bed having the valve side 
toward the center of the plate; (8) place a chilled oyster on each shell; 
(9) in the center of the plate, place a quarter of a lemon on a sprig of pars- 
ley; (10) serve the oysters with salt, pepper, cayenne, horse-radish, tabasco 
sauce, or tomato catsup. 

Oyster cocktail. 

(1) Clean and chill oysters, allowing five oysters for each person to be 
served; (2) use tomato catsup or mix the following ingredients for sauce 
(to serve twelve persons) : 

1 tablespoon horse-radish 5 tablespoons lemon juice 
}4: teaspoon tabasco 3 tablespoons tomato catsup 

2 tablespoons vinegar IJ^ teaspoon salt 

3 tablespoons Worcestershire. 

(3) Place five oysters in a sherbet cup or sherry glass; grapefruit shells, 
lemon shells, tomato cups, green pepper cups, or cups of tomato jelly set 
in beds of ice may be used instead of sherbet cups; (4) add 1 tablespoon of 
the sauce. 

Cooking of oysters. 

(1) Oysters require very little cooking; (2) put them over the fire in 
their own liquor; (3) remove them as soon as they are plump, or the gills 
become curled, for longer cooking makes them tough; (4) cracker crumbs 
are better than breadcrumbs for mixing with oysters. 



C'ii.\i'ri:i; x.wiii 

EGGS 

By WiNiKUKi) Moses 

Eggs arc one of the best meat substitutes, since they furnish 
animal protein and are easily prepared for the table. Moreovei . 
they are especially valuable in the diet because of their hif:h 
iron-content. Methods of j)re])aring egg^ are practically un- 
limited for almost any course in a menu. 

In keejiing eggs and in using them economically, the following 
suggestions may be useful: 

Eggs should be kept in a cool dry place; they should always 
be washed just before being used; left-over egg-whites should 
be kept in a cool place in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks 
may be beaten and kept in a covered dish; left-over egg-yolks 
may be dropped whole into hot water, cooked until they are 
solid, and set aside to serve in soup; cooked egg-yolk may l)e 
rubbed through a sieve as a garnish for a salad, or for the top 
of a dish of cream toast or of meat warmed in a sauce; the 
clean shells from uncooked eggs may be used to settle coffee, 
or to aid in claiifying fat or soups. 

All egg dishes should be rinsed with cold water before they 
are washed. Hot water hardens albumen. 

TESTS FOR FRESH EGGS 

The following tests may be used to determine^ whether eggs 
arc fresh: (1) The shell of a fresh egg is rough, not smooth 
and shiny; (2) a rcasonal)ly fresh egg will sink in salt water 
made by dissolving 7.3 cup of salt in 1 quart of water while a 
stale egg will float; (3) when an egg is candled, that is, held 
against an opening in a shield around a bright light, a fresh 
egg will appear clear inside and the air cell will not be larger 

534 



EGGS 535 

than a nickel; (4) a fresh egg makes no sound when it is 
shaken, 

EGG COOKERY 

Beating eggs. 

To beat well, eggs should be cold and fresh. A few grains 
of salt added to the whites may hasten the process. In pre- 
paring egg-white for beating, one should be careful to have it 
free from every particle of yolk. If a close texture is desired, 
the Dover egg-beater should be used; it should rest lightly on 
the bottom of the bowl and the beating should be slow at 
first. If a loose texture is desired, a confectioner's whisk 
should be used; or, for a still looser texture, a flat egg-beater. 
Egg-whites are beaten stiff when the impression made by the 
beater is retained; they are beaten dry when the gloss has dis- 
appeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. 

For thickening. — When eggs are added to thicken a mixture, 
they should be beaten only until the whites and the yolks are 
well mixed, or until a spoonful of the mixture can be taken up 
and held in the spoon. 

For leavening. — When eggs are added to insure lightness, 
the yolks and whites should be beaten separately; the yolks 
until thick and lemon colored, and the whites until stiff, that is, 
until the dish containing the beaten egg can be tipped upside 
down without losing the egg white. 

Eggs cooked in the shell. 

(1) Cover the eggs with boihng water, and cover the kettle; (2) remove 
the kettle from direct heat; (3) for a soft-cooked egg, allow the egg to 
stand in the hot water for 4 to 7 minutes; for a medium-cooked egg, 7 to 
10 minutes; for a hard-cooked egg, from 45 to 50 minutes. 

Poached eggs. 

Method I: (1) Place in a shallow pan as many muffin rings as there are 
eggs to poach; (2) turn in enough boiling water to cover the rings; (3) when 
the water boils break an egg into each ring; (4) remove the pan from direct 
heat, and let the eggs remain in the water until the whites are jelly-like and 
translucent (from 10 to 15 minutes); (5) remove the eggs in the rings to a 
serving dish, with a skimmer or pancake turner; (6) remove the muffin 
rings; (7) season the eggs with salt and pepper; (8) garnish them with 
parsley, if desired. 



53(1 .1 MAX I At. or IK) Ml-: \IAI<!.\(; 

Mdhnil II: (1) Add :i dash of salt in llic wliitc of an «•««; ('-') boat tie 
wliifr to a froth; (i!) put it in a sliallow dish or in a jilas«; ( t) drop the iin- 
lirokcM yolk in tlic center; ('») set the di-h in a pan of l»oihnn watrr; Oi) 
rover the disli, and li-t the ej^n cook for "J ininnles. 

Mrlhoil III (I'rencli poaclied e^ns, use<l for narnislies): (1) Fill a dtn-p 
saucepan nearly' full of water; (2) add 1 teaspcjon of salt and 1 tal)lesi)(>on 
of vinegar (o 1 (piart of water; ('.)} when the water is l)oilinn violently, 
crack the shell of the eKu;, and holdinn it close to the water, drop the con- 
tents quickly whore the water is hoiiin^ hardest; (}) when the e^K is firm 
remove it with a skimmer, draining off the water. 

Shirred eggs. 

(1) Butter individual l)akinK dishes; (2) break an epjK into each dish; 
(3) sprinkle .salt on tiie wliites hut not on the yolks; (4) place the dishes in 
a shallow ])an of hot water, and place the jian on the shelf in a .slow oven; 

(5) baste the yolks with a little melted butter, while they are cooking; 

(6) cook the eggs until the white is set. 

Variations: (1) Place chopped chicken, ham, mu.shrooms, or tomato 
pur6e in the bottom of the dish, before the egg is added; (2) serve the eggs 
on toast, broiled ham, minced meat, or stewed kidneys; (3) pour over the 
top cream, B6chamel or tomato sauce. (See Sauces, page 552). 

Fried eggs. 

(1) Place a little fat in a very clean frying pan; (2) when it bubbles, 
crack the shells, and drop in the eggs; (3) cook the eggs at a moderate 
temperature imtil the white is .set. If hard-cooked eggs are desired, turn 
them and cook them on the other side. 

Scrambled eggs. 

(1) Beat the eggs lightly with a fork, just enough to break them; (2) to 
4 eggs, add 2 tablespoons of milk, J^2 teaspoon of .salt, and a dash of pepper; 
(3) put H tablespoon of fat in the top of a double boiler; (4) turn in the 
eggs; (5) cook them, over hot water, stirring them constantly until they 
begin to thicken; (B) remove the double boiler from the fire, and continue 
to stir the eggs until they are of the proper consistency. 

Variations: (1) When the doul)lc boiler is removed from the fire, add a 
teaspoon of chopped parsley, or a little tomato sauce or pulp, or minced 
chicken, ham, bacon, or mushrooms; (2) garnish the eggs with croutons 
or parsley. 

Omelets. 

French omelet: (1) Scour the omelet pan with .s;\lt and vinegar, and wijie 
it; (2) just before using the pan, .scour it with .salt; (3) beat the eggs just 
enough to break them (12 revolutions with a Dover lieater); (4) to 3 eggs, 
add J4 tea.spoon of salt, a dash of pepper, and I2 teaspoon of butter broken 
into small bits, adding a teaspoon of milk or not as desired; (5) heat the 
pan; (6) grease the pan with l-i teaspoon of fat; (7) turn in the eggs; (8) 



EGGS 537 

with a fork break the cooked surface quickly, in several places around the 
edge, or press the egg away from the sides, letting the uncooked part run 
under; (9) when the egg is cooked, but still quite soft on top, lift the pan 
on one side, slip a knife under the omelet, and carefully fold it through the 
center; (10) let it cook a moment to thicken any of the egg that has run 
out; (11) place a hot dish over the pan, and invert the two in such a way 
that the omelet will fall in the proper place; (12) press it into good shape; 
(13) garnish it with parsley and serve at once. 

Varialions: (1) Sprinkle a little finely chopped parsley over the top; 
(2) turn t'jmato, Bechamel, or mushroom sauce on the dish around the 
omelet; sprinkle the top with chopped mushrooms, if mushroom sauce is 
used; (3) spread the omelet with chopped ham, oysters, or chicken before 
folding it, and serve it with a sauce; (4) spread the omelet with creamed 
peas or other vegetable before turning it, and serve it with white sauce; 
(5) spread the omelet with jelly or jam before folding it. 

Puffy omelet: (1) Beat the whites of the eggs until they are dry (page 535) ; 
(2) beat the yolks until they are thick and lemon-colored; (3) add 3 table- 
spoons of water, M teaspoon of salt, and a dash of pepper for each 3 yolks, 
and mix the ingredients thoroughly; (4) turn the mixture over the beaten 
whites; (5) cut and fold the whites into the yolk mixture; (6) turn the 
mixture into a hot buttered pan; (7) cook it for 2 minutes over moderate 
heat; (8) set it in the oven to cook the top slightly; (9) when a knife thrust 
into the center comes out nearly clean, remove the omelet from the oven, 
cut it across the center of the top at right angles to the handle, fold the part 
nearest the handle over the other part, and turn it on to a hot platter. 

Varialions: (1) To 3 egg-yolks, add the grated rind of 1 orange, 3 table- 
spoons of orange juice, and 3 tablespoons of powdered sugar, garnishing 
the omelet with sliced oranges and powdered sugar (this is a good chafing- 
dish recipe); (2) add 2 tablespoons of maraschino juice and 1/3 cup of 
chopped maraschino cherries to the beaten yolks, and garnish the omelet 
with strawberry jam and cherries. 

Omelet with a starchy foundation: (1) Make 1 cup of medium white sauce 
(page 552); (2) stir into this the yolks of 5 eggs; (3) fold in the stiffly 
beaten whites of the eggs; (4) melt 1 tablespoon of butter in an omelet pan; 
(5) pour in the mixture, and cook it in the same way as a puffy omelet. 

Variations: (1) Finely chopped ham, chicken, parboiled oysters, or 
mushrooms, may be added with the white sauce to the yolks of eggs; (2) 1 
cup of grated pineapple, 1 teaspoon of lemon juice, and J4 cup of sugar, 
may be added to the yolks; (3) oranges or strawberries may take the place 
of pineapple, the amount of sugar depending on the acidity of the fruit. 

Firm custards. 

Baked custard: (1) Allow from 4 to G eggs or 6 egg-yolks, J^ cup of sugar, 
}4 teaspoon of salt, and a few gratings of nutmeg, to 1 quart of milk; 
(2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs slightly, and add the salt and the 



5:is .1 .u.t.vr.i/. or home makixc; 

suRur; (4) stir the scalded milk slowlj' into (he mixture; (5) turn the mix- 
ture into n pudding dish or individual eups; (ti) urate a little nutmeg over 
the top; (7) set the dish in a pan of hot water, and bake it in a m(Mlenitc 
oven; (8) test it by running a knife into the center. If the knife comes out 
clean, the custard is done. 

Variations: (1) To each quart of milk, add 1 2 fup "f caramel; (2) use 
left-over cocoa instead of milk; (3) to each quart of milk, add 3 ounces of 
melted chocolate. 

Molded cu{>lard: For a custard firm enough to turn from a mold, use 2 
eggs to each cup of milk. 

Royal c!/.s7an/; For a custard that is cut in slices and served as a garnish 
use 1 egg to 1 tablespoon of milk. 

Liquid custards. 

Soft custard: (1) Allow 4 whole eggs or the yolks of 6 eggs, V-j <"up of 
sugar, 14 teaspoon of salt, and ^^ teaspoon of vanilla to each quart of milk 
(if eggs are scarce, substitute 14 tablespoon of cornstarch for 1 egg-yolk); 
(2) scald the milk; (3) beat the eggs sliglitly and add the sugar and the 
salt; (4) stir the scalded milk slowly into the mixture; (5) cook the custard 
slowly in a double boiler, stirring it constantly, until it thickens and coats 
the spoon; (G) if the custard curdles, beat it with a Dover egg-beater; 
(7) add the flavoring; (S) cover the custard with a perforated tin until it 
is served, to prevent a film from forming. 

Variations: (1) Just before removing the custard from the heat, fold 
in the whites of the eggs beaten until they are foamy; (2) caramel, coffee, 
or chocolate may be added to the milk before it is atlded to the eggs. 

Uses of liquid custard: (!) Pour the custard over alternate layers of stale 
cake and sliced peaches, pears, bananas, or oranges; (2) pour the custard 
over sliced fruit. Garnish the dish with sliced bananas, dates, or nut meats. 

English custard (for filling cream puffs and eclairs): (1) Allow for each 
pint of milk, 2 eggs or 4 egg-yolks, 3^2 cup of flour, ^i cui> of sugar, 14 tea- 
spoon of vanilla, and }4 teaspoon of salt; (2) mix and sift the dry ingre- 
dients; (3) slowly add the hot milk to them, stirring the mixture constantly; 
(4) cook the mixture until it boils; (5) cool it, stirring it constantly for 15 
minutes; (6) add the egg-yolks, or eggs, and stir it until the egg is cooked. 
It maj' be necessary to return it to the heat. 

Variations: (1) }4 ^up "f black coffee may be substituted for }.{ cup of 
milk; (2) 1 ounce of chocolate cooked with 2 tablespoons each of sugar and 
water maj^ be added to the milk. 

Snuffles. 

Plain souffle: For 4 eggs, allow 1 cup of sugar and the juice and rind of 
1 lemon, or its eciuivalent in liquid and other flavoring; (2) beat the yolks 
until they are thick; (3) add the sugar gradu.illy, and continue l)eating; 
(4) add the lemon rind and juice; (5) cut and fokl in the .stiffly beaten 
whites; (6) turn the mixture into a buttered baking-dish set in a pan of 



EGGS 



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lull xsatci. ami hake it fniiii lifi to 10 tnimilcs; (7) scivc the soiilll*'' at imc<», 
with iir without sauce. 

Fniil sniilllc: ( I ) I'"nr tin- whites of ;i e^^s, allow 'j.i of a <-up of fruit |)ul|), 
(tniiiied and |)asse(l throunh a sieve, su^ar as needed, and a few nr-'ins of 
salt; (2) heal the fruit pulp, and sweeten it; CI) heat the e^n whites until 
thoy Jiro stiff; (t) add the fruit jiuip, su>!;ar, and salt to tliern, and continu*' 
hoatinR; (5) turn the mixture into huttered molds, filling them three-fourths 
full; (G) set the molds in a |)an of hot water, and hake the soulll6 in a 
moderate oven until it is firm; (7) serve it with or without sauce or 
whipped cream. 

\'c(/it(il)lc souffle: (1) Allow :J e^K^ and 1 cup of vegetable pulp, ruhhed 
through a sieve to 1 cup of thick white sauce; (2) heat the yolks until they 
are thick; (3) add them to tht^ thick white sauce; (4) arhl the vegetahli-s; 
(5) beat the whites until (hey are stifT; (ti) fold them into tiie other mix- 
ture; (7) add the seasoning; (S) turn the mixture into a buttercMl baking- 
dish set in a pan of hot water, and cook it in a moderate oven until it is .set. 

Custard souffle (for the main dish or des.sert): (1) Allow 4 eggs, J^ cup 
of sugar if the souIHe is to be u.sed for dessert, and 14 teaspoon of salt, to 1 
cup of thick white sauce; (2) beat the yolks until they are thick; (:i) add 
the beaten yolks and the sugar to the white sauce; (4) l)eat the whites until 
they are stifT; (5) fold them into the other mixture; (G) turn the mixture 
into a buttered baking-dish, and set it in a pan of hot water; (7) bake it for 
about 35 minutes in a moderate oven; (S) serve it at once with creamy or 
foamy sauce (see Sauces, pag(> 5G0). 

Fondues are made in the .same manner as soufTies, milk with breadcrumbs 
l)eing used instead of a wliite sauce. They are not so light as .souffles. Both 
fondues and souffles should be baked by being set in a pan of hot water and 
placed in a moderate oven. 

Meringues. 

Meringues for pies atid garnishes for desserls: (1) Allow 1 tablespoon of 
sugar to 1 egg-white; (2) chill the egg-whites; (;j) add a jiinch of salt to 
them; (4) l)eat them with an egg-whisk until they are stiff; (o) add the 
sugar gradually, and continue Ix'ating until the sugar is thoroughly dis- 
solved; (G) add flavoring as desired; (7) cook the meringue in a very .slow 
oven for about 15 minutes, increasing the heat somewhat toward the end 
of the period, if necessary, to l)rown the meringue. 

Snow eggs: (1) Allow 1 ounce of sugar (2 tal)lespoons) to 1 ounce of egg- 
w'hite (2 tablespoons); (2) beat the whites until they are nearly dry; (3) 
continue beating, and add half of the sugar gradually; (4) when the mix- 
ture is very firm, fold in the other half of the sugar; (5) dip a tablespoon in 
boiling water, fill it with meringue, and shape the meringue in the form of 
an egg; (G) remove the spoonfuls of meringue to a pan of gently simmering 
water, and let it .stand where the water will keep hot; (7) poach the mc^ 
ringue until it is firni tlininirlioul ; lliis rcciuires from 10 to 14 minutes. 



EGGS 



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Snow ('nns may 1"' |)o:icli((l in milk, and tlir milk may he us<k1 aftcrwanls 
in making custards. 

Meringues for ticsscrlx: (1) Allow 1 pound (2 c-ups) of suRar and I4 
(ciuspoon of salt to J2 I)<)und (1 cup) of frt«h cKg-whitcs; (2) chill the ogg- 
whitps; (3) ad<l the salt; (4) heat thorn slowly at first, hut fa-ster a.s thoy 
grow stiff; (.5) add 2 tablespoons of sugar and boat it in thoroughly; (fi) add 
2 tablospoons of sugar twice again, and continue beating until the mixture 
can be cut clean with a knife; (7) jwid tlie remainder of the sugar, folding 
it into the mass hghtly and smoothly; (S) tack a piece of damp pajx-r on 
a board 1 inch tliick; (9) droj) the mixture in spoonfuls on the paper, giving 
each spoonful an oval, or egg shape; (10) flust them with granulated sugar; 
(11) sot them in a very slow oven to dry; (12) at the end increa.se the heat 
to brown them delicately, the baking requiring from ^^ to 1 hour; (13) 
when they are baked, lift them from the pai)er, and take out the uncorjked 
centers, returning the shells to the oven to dry out; (14) when the shells 
are colil, fill them with whii)potl cream, ice cream, or water ice; (15) ser\'e 
the meringues at once. 

Italinn meringue. — Italian meringue is used for icing cakes and as a 
sauce. Directions for making it are given on page 4S,S. 

Varialioyis: (1) Substitute 14 ^np *^f grated pineapple juice and pulp for 
the water; (2) to 2 egg-whites, allow 1 pound of maple sugar cut into bits, 
and J/^ cup of water in place of the granulated sugar and the water; (3) add 
2 ounces of melted chocolate to the sirup when it reaches the thread stage. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

VEGETABLES 
By Lucile Brewer 

Although by means of proper storage, vegetables can be 
kept beyond their season, the price of products held in this way 
is necessarily higher than of those bought in season. Therefore, 
the general rule should be to use vegetables when they are in 
season (page 550). 

Vegetables may be classified as follows according to the parts 
of the plants used : 

Tubers. — Potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes. 

Roots. — Beets, carrots, parsnips, radishes, sweet potatoes, 
salsify, and turnips. 

Bulbs. — Garlic, onions, shallots. 

Stems. — ^Asparagus, celery, chives. 

Leaves. — Brussels sprouts, beet greens, cabbage, dandelion, 
lettuce, sorrel, spinach, water cress. 

Flowers. — Cauliflower. 

Fruit. — Beans, corn, cucumbers, okra, eggplant, peao, lentils, 
squash, tomatoes. 

CARE OF VEGETABLES IN THE HOME 

Summer, or green, vegetables should be cooked as soon as 
possible after being gathered. If they must be kept, they should 
be spread on the floor of a cool, dry, well-ventilated cellar, or 
placed in the ice chest. Lettuce should be sprinkled with cold 
water, and wrapped in heavy paper or cloth. If vegetables are 
wilted, they may be freshened by standing in cold water. Vege- 
tables containing sugar lose some of the sweetness by standing. 
Corn and peas lose their flavor more quickly in this way than 
any others. 

543 



514 .1 .U.l.\r.l/. OF HOME M.\KI\<: 

Winter vrmclahlcs should he stoicd in a cool dry place. Po- 
tatoes, carrots, and turnips should Ix^ kept in barrels or bins 
in order thai as much air as possible may l^c excluded. Squashfis 
should b(> s|)read apart in such a way that they will not touch 
one allot hei'. They should be watched carefully and when 
dark spots appear, should be cooked af once. I''urt her directions 
are f^iven on pa}2;e 584. 

Canned vegetables should be emptied from the can as soon 
as they are opened, turnerl into a bowl, and allowerl to stand for 
at least one hour l)efore beinjz; used, in order that the flavor may 
be inipioved by contact with the air. 

Dried vegetables should be soaked in c(j1(1 water overnighl 
and cooked in the same water, more being added, if necessary. 

COOKING OF VEGETABLES 

Vegetables may be classified accoiding to flavor into those 
with strong juices, and those with mild juices. 

Strong-juiced vegetables. 

Strong-juiced vegetables, such as caulifiower, Brussels sprouts, 
cabbage, onions, and turnips, should be washed in cold water 
and cooked until they ar(> just tender, in l)oiling water in an 
uncovered kettle to allow the volatile oils to pass off in the 
steam. In this way the flavor is made more delicate, and the 
color is kept better. If strong-juiced vegetables are over-cooked, 
they liecome dark in color, strong in flavor, antl may produce 
digestive disturbances. 

Mild-juiced vegetables. 

Vegetables with mild juices, which include the greater number, 
should be washed in cold water and cooked in boiling water in a 
kettle with the cover ajar until they are soft. 

Salt. 

If salt is added to the wat(>r in which vegetables are cooked, 
the flaxor and coloi- will be iniprovecl. Less mineral matter is 
dissoKcd out in ctxtking when salt is added at the beginning 
of the period lhan<if the end. If the vt'g(^tabk's are wilted atid 



VEGETABLES 545 

likely to be tough, it may be better to add the salt just as they 
are done. 

Soda. 

The use of soda in cooking vegetables is a questionable prac- 
tice if it is employed in a larger amount than is necessary just 
to neutralize any acid of the vegetable and thus prevent loss 
of color in cooking. If used in this small amount, it accomplishes 
the purpose and does not make the vegetable water unfit for 
use in soups and sauces. It is thought that the vitamines of 
vegetables may be destroyed if heated in an alkaline solution; 
therefore, only a very small amount of soda should be used. For 
soaking and cooking dried legumes, however, 14 teaspoon of 
soda is lecommended for each quart of water, to soften the 
water and the skins. 

Blanching. 

Vegetables may be made more delicate in flavor if they are 
lilanched. To blanch vegetables, they should be covered with 
boiling water and allowed to boil for 5 minutes. They may then 
be drained, rinsed in cold water, and cooked as usual. Since 
blanching causes a loss of a certain amount of the food sub- 
stance, it is not recommended. 

Losses in cooking vegetables. 

Boiling vegetables is a wasteful method of cooking them unless 
all the water is used in some way, such as in soups or sauces. 
Much of the nutrutive value, especially the mineral substances, 
is dissolved out by the water. In the average well-planned 
dietary, vegetables and fruits are depended on to furnish much 
of the mineral needed by the body; even though they may 
seem high in price compared with certain other foods, an effort 
is made to procure them. Therefore, a loss of these important 
mineral substances — iron, phosphorus, calcium, and mag- 
nesium — through careless cooking should be avoided. The loss 
of iron in boiling spinach, for example, has been found to be as 
great as 50 per cent under certain conditions. The per- 
centage of loss is increased by paring the vegetables or cutting 



546 .1 MAM AL OF HOMi: M\Kl\G 

thom ill small pieces and thus rxposm^ more surface, be- 
fore c.(K)kiiij!; (hem, and also hy piitliufz; (hem on to c(X)k in cold 
\\:i(er. 

If vegetables are to l>e boiled, therefore, plans shouM be made 
for usinjj; the water in which they are cooked. Unless all the 
water is to be used, they should be cooked with the skins on, 
they should not be cut in small pieces, and they should be put 
on to cook in boiling water. 

Steaming vegetables effects a great saving over boiling them. 
However, the most economical method of cooking those vege- 
tables that allow it, is to bake them. 



VEGETABLES 



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CIIAl'TKK XXX 
SAUCES 

Bv W'lNIFUKI) MoSKS 

Sauces are relied on in eook(My as a basis for soups, cro- 
quettes, souffles, certain desserts, such as cornstarch pudding, 
and as a means of making other foods more palatable or more 
nutritious. The few types of simple sauces can be varied almost 
without limit by the imaginative cook. 

w'hitb: sauce 
Thin sauce 
Vp to 3<i or 1 tablespoon fat 

3^ or 1 tablespoon flour 

1 cup milk 

Sea-soning 

Medium thick sauce 
V]i to 2 tablespoons fat 

13^ to 2^ tablespoons flour 

1 cup milk 

Seasoning 

Thick sauce 

Up to 3 or 4 tablespoons fat 

3 or 4 tablespoons flour 

1 cup milk 

Seasoning 

Method I. 

(1) Melt the fat in the top of a double boiler; (2) when the fat bubble,-;, 
remove the kettle from the heat, add the thickening agent, stirring the 
mixture until it is smooth; (3) add the cold liquid, return the mixture to 
the fire, and stir it constantly until it boils; (4) add the seasoning. 

In this method nearly as much fat as flour should be used. 

Method II. 

(1) Scald the li(iuid in the top of a double lioiler; (2) mix the thickening 
agent with a stiiuI! amount of cold li((uid, beat it free from all lumps 

552 



SAUCES 553 

and thin it to the consistency of thin cream; (3) add this paste graduallj- 
to the scalded liquid, stirring the sauce constantly until it boils; (4) add 
the fat and the seasoning. 

Fat may be omitted in this method, or varying amounts may be used. 

If a large quantity of sauce is to be made, Method II is recom- 
mended because of the shorter time required. If the sauce 
is not to be used immediately, it may be kept hot over hot water. 
It should be kept covered to prevent a film forming on the sur- 
face. If lumps appear, due to a faulty method of making, they 
may be removed by beating the sauce with an egg-beater or by 
straining it. 

BUTTER SAUCE 

Method of makmg: (1) Melt half of the butter; (2) add the flour and 
seasonings; (3) stir the mixture over the fire until it bubbles; (4) remove 
it from the fire; (5) add the hot water gradually; (6) return the mixture to 
the fire and boil it, stirring it constantly; (7) add the remaining butter in 
small pieces. 

BROWN SAUCES 
Method of making: (1) Melt the butter in a saucepan; (2) add the flour 
and stir the mixture until it bubbles; (3) remove the mixture from the 
fire, and add the liquid gradually, stirring constantly to prevent lumps 
from forming; (4) return the sauce to the fire, and stir it until it boils; 
(5) brown stock, browned flour, kitchen bouquet, Worcestershire sauce, 
or caramel may be used to give a brown color; (6) when vegetables and 
herbs are used as flavoring, cut them very fine, cook them in the butter 
until they are a russet brown, strain the sauce before using it; (7) when 
raw mushrooms are used, peel them and clean them, simmer them in 
water until they are tender, or saute them in butter; (8) when olives are 
used, cover them with boiling water, let them simmer for an hour, cut 
them from the seeds. 

SAUCES THICKENED WITH EGG 
Method of making: (1) Wash % cup of butter and put in a bowl; to wash 
butter, cover it with cold water and wash it with a wooden spoon until it is 
free from water and salt;' (2) divide the butter into three parts; .(3) put one 
piece in a saucepan with the unbeaten yolks of eggs and the lemon juice; 
(4) place the saucepan in hot water; (5) stir the mixture in the saucepan 
constantly until the butter is melted; (tt) add the second piece of butter 
and continue the stirring; (7) add the third piece of butter and continue 
the stirring; (8) add the liquid and the other ingredients gradually, stirring 
the sauce constantly until it thickens. 



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2 egg yolks 

2 egg yolks 

2 egg yolks 
2 egg yolks 


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1 tbsp. lemon juice or 

\^ tbsp. vinegar 
1 tsp. water, 1 tbsp. 

lemon juice, 3^ cup 

cream 
1 tsp. water, 1 tbsp. 

lemon juice, 34 cup 

cream 
1/3 cup boiling water, 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 
1/3 cup boiling water, 

1 tbsp. lemon juice 




c 


Hollandaise, I . 
Hollandaise, II 
Horse-radish . . 

Lobster 

Shrimp 



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561 



In all sweet sauces except hard sauce, corn sirup, maple sirup, or honey 
may be substituted for all or part of the sugar with slight adjustment. 

SWEET SAUCES 

Sweet sauces thickened with starchy material. 

Method of making: (1) Mix the sugar and the cornstarch; (2) add the 
hot liquid gradually; (3) cook the mixture, stirring it constantly until it 
thickens; (4) continue the cooking over hot water until the uncooked 
flavor of the thickening agent can no longer be detected; (5) add any 
flavoring material that is to be used. 

Sweet sauces thickened with egg. 

Method of nidking: For sauces in which butter and sugar do not form the 
basis: (1) Beat the egg slightly; (2) add the milk, hot or cold; (3) add the 
sugar and the salt; (4) mix the ingredients thoroughly; (5) cook the mix- 
ture over hot water, stirring it constantly until it coats the spoon; (6) add 
any flavoring material that is to be used; (7) if the sauce curdles, beat it 
thoroughly with a Dover egg-beater. 

For sauces in which butter and sugar form the basis: (1) Cream the 
butter; (2) add the sugar; (3) add the egg, well-beaten; (4) add the liquid 
gradually; (5) cook the mixture over hot water until it is creamy, stirring 
it constantly; (6) add any flavoring material that is to be used. 

For sauces thickened with beaten egg whites: Add the egg whites to 
the other ingredients, which are cooked or uncooked as necessary, and 
beat the sauce until the ingredients are well combined. 

Sirup sauces. 

Method of making: Combine the sugar and the water, and put the mix- 
ture over the heat; stir it until the sugar is dissolved; boil it without stirring 
it until it forms a good thread when dropped from a spoon; add the flavor- 
ing or crushed fruit. 



TABLE L.— Sirup Sauces 



Sauce 


Ingredients 


'Use 


Sirup. . . . 


3 tbsp. boiling water, 2 cups 
sugar, 1 tsp. butter, fruit 
juice for desired flavor 

J^ cup boiUng water, % cup 
sugar, 1 quart strawberries 
put through a sieve 


Plain puddings, pan- 


Strawberry 


cakes 

Blanc mange, cottage 
pudding 



662 



.1 MAMAL or IKtMi: MAh'ixr; 



Solid smiccs. 

Milhiiil of mnkiug: (1) ('ream llir IhiMit; (2) ;nl<l llir Minar Kra<lii:ill.v: 
(li) add tlio other ingredieiils, workinn llietn well into llie mixture; (1) 
place the sauce on ire to harden. 



IWBLE LI.— Solid SAurKs 



tSatice 


Ingredients 


r.sc 


Hard, I 


]/2 ci'P butter, 1 cup su^ar, 
vanilhi 


I'uiidings 


Hard, II 


14, cup butter, 1 egg yolk, 1 
cup sugar, vanilhi 


Pud<lings 


Hard, III 


Yz cup butter, 1 egg white, 1 
cup sugar, vanilla 


Puddings 


Strawberrj- 


1/3 cup butter, 1 egg white. 
1 cup jiowdered sugar, 2/3 
cup strawl)erry pulp 


Boiled rice 


Cocoanut 


^ cup butter, 2 egg yolks. 


Suet pudding, plain 




2 egg whites, 1 cuyi grated 


pudding, steame<l 




cocoanut, 1 cup sugar 


puilding, hot rice pud- 
ding, hot tapioca pud- 
ding 



CHAPTER XXXI 

SALADS 

By Miriam Birdseye 

The word salad is derived from the Latin salaius, meaning 
salted. The original salad probably consisted of crisp leaf or 
stem vegetables dressed with salt. With the passage of years, 
the meaning of the term has been expanded to include any 
food or combination of foods served with an acid-bearing 
dressing, provided it is accompanied by some crisp salad-green 
as an important part of the dish itself or as a conspicuous 
garnish. The typical salad, however, remains a dish of crisp 
salad greens with some very simple dressing, sometimes only 
oil and salt. 

Salads offer a palatable and attractive way of disposing of 
small quantities of choice left-over vegetables, fruits, or meats, 
and of introducing fruits and vegetables into the daily meals, 
especially green leaf-vegetables, which are known to be excel- 
lent sources of food-iron. Salads lend a strong color note, 
pleasantly acid flavor, and succulence to the menu. Probably 
no other type of dish solves as many of the menu-maker's 
problems as does salad; and this is the real secret of its popu- 
larity. 

SALAD HERBS 

To season salads and dressings. 

The following herbs, except capers, may easily be grown in 
the home garden. For directions for cultivating them, see 
Bailey's " Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture." 

Capers: Used as a garnish for meat and fish salads, mixed with the salad 
itself, or chopped and added with other chopped seasonings to mayonnaise 
dressing. Capers are the buds of a shrub which is cultivated in European 

563 



.")()! .1 .i/.i.\/ .1/. or IK) Mr: maki.xc 

(•niinlrics iKHili'iinn tlic Mi.ilitcrr.itKMii; llicy arc ^fiicrally pifklinl in viri(>- 
Har and sold in small l)<)ttl('s. 

Chcrril: ( 'li(»i)i)c<l like parslry, sprinkled over endive or fish sala<ls, or 
uscci U) make chervil vincj^ar. 

Chives: Chopped and sprinkled over jM>fafo or meat saUuls, or added to 
salad dressings. They are a small plant of the onion family and grow \vil<l 
in many parts of the country. Cultivated chives may sometimes he hou^ht 
Urowinm in flat wooden boxes; they are slender t>nion-like leaves. 

(I'lirlic: The hull) or "clove" is sometimes used to rub the bottoTu of the 
salad bowl, but more frequently to j)repare a chaixm for ^reen .«alads. A 
chajion is a thin piece of bread crust, about 1 inch wide and 2 inches long, 
sprinkled with salt and rubbed with a crushed clove of garlic. It is placed 
in the bottom of the salad bowl before the salad is put in, and rcmuin.s 
during the mi.\ing, but is removed before the salad is served. 

A'd.sturtiian: The flowers arc ased as a garnish; the leaves and young 
buds are chopped to give flavor. Sometimes young .seeds are chopped and 
added to mayonnaise dressing with other chopp(vl sea.sonings. 

Onion: The cut side of an onion may be rubbed over the bowl before 
the salad is put in to give a slight onion flavor to a green saUul. Oil for 
dressings to be u.sed with vegetables, meat, or i\s]\ is sometimes flavoreil 
by allowing a slice of onion or a little onion pulp to lie in it for a few hours; 
onion juice may be added to the dressing itself if desired. 

Parsley: Chopjied fine and used with other chopped seasonings in both 
French and Mayonnaise dre.-^sings. 

Sage: (,'hopped and used with meat salads. 

Spearmint: Chopped and sprinkled over cold lamb salad; or use<l for 
flavoring vinegar to be served with lamb salad. 

Sweet basil: Used with fish and shell-fish. 

Tarragon: Chopped and sprinkled over salads, or use<l to make tarragon 
vinegar. Tarragon has a delicate flavor resembling that of anise. 

Seasons for salad greens. 

Spring: Lettuce (curly, Boston head, or Romaine varieties), water cress, 
upland or winter cress (charlock), black or white mustard, peppergnuss, 
wild chives, young radish anil turnip tops, sorrel, blanched dandelions, 
corn-salad (lamb's salad or fetticus), blanched wild chicory (succory). 

Summer: Lettuce, water cre-ss, sorrel, cabliage, na.sturtium stems and 
young buds, endive (late summer). 

Autumn: Lettuce, sorrel, endive, cabbage, celery. 

Winter: Lettuce, French endive (witloof chicory), endive, cabbage, 
celery. 

S.\L.\n DRESSINGS 

The apparently infinite ninnl)er of salad (lressinp;s may read- 
ilj' be reduced to a few well-recognized types. These types with 



SALADS 565 

their best-known modifications are listed below in the order 
of their simplicity. It is believed that this classification will 
prove more suggestive than a large number of specific recipes. 

Salt. 

Suitable for a green salad. 

Salt and oil. 

Suitable for a green salad or for tomatoes. 

Vinegar, sugar, and water. 

Suitable for a green salad or for tomatoes. 

Lemon juice, sugar, and ivater. 

Suitable for a green salad, for tomatoes, or for fruit. Children are likely 
to enjoy this dressing. 

Recipe. 

Strained juice of 1 lemon, 1 teaspoon powdered sugar 

An equal quantity of cold water Salt 

French dressing. 

The most extensively used dressing; suitable for green salads, vegetable 
salads, fruit salads, egg, fish, or meat salads, although as a rule a thicker 
dressing is preferred for the last three. 

Recipe. 

3 tablespoons oil M to 3^ teaspoon salt 

1 tablespoon vinegar 1/8 teaspoon pepper 

or lemon juice Dash of cayenne pepper 

Mix the ingredients thoroughly, either by beating them with a fork till 
well thickened, or by shaking them in a jar or glass-stoppered bottle. If 
French dressing is made in quantity in a bottle, the amount needed may 
be poured out, and the remainder may be stored in a cold place for sub- 
sequent use. The dressing should be thoroughly shaken before it is used 
a second time. Special bottles for French dressing are now on the market. 

Variations of French dressiiig. 

1. Add 34 teaspoon of onion juice. 2. Add 1 teaspoon made mustard or 
14 teaspoon ground mustard. 3. Use 34 teaspoon paprika (Hungarian red 
pepper) instead of black pepper. 4. Add from 3^ to 3^ teaspoon of pow- 
dered sugar. 5. For fruit salads, use lemon juice, orange juice, or grape- 
fruit juice in place of the vinegar, and add 34 teaspoon or more of powdered 
sugar. 6. To make a sharper tasting dressing, use a larger proportion of 
vinegar and more salt. 7. Use vinegar flavored with tarragon or with 
chervil. 8. To secure a slight flavor of strong herbs, crush a few of the 
fresh leaves in a mortar, and .soak them in a little oil, which may then 
be pressed out and added to the dressing. Herbs may be used as follows: 



i\C)C) A MAM A I. or HOME MAKIXd 

SiimiiKT .savory or lliynic in a urcni salii<l to l)c scrvcti willi p<»ultr>'; mint 
in a sala<i to l)o SL-rved willi lainl) or imilt<iii or on a lanili or mutton Halad; 
sweet marjoram or sa^c in a sala<l .s('rvc(l with jiccsc or ducks; sweot ha.sil 
in a salad of fisli or i-lams; caraway, lialm, or clicrvil may also he ukc<I. 
*.). Add clioijpcd pai-slcy, chives, capers, or ^reen peppei-s. 10. Add the 
finely chopped white of a hard-cooked cfy^, or the yolk put through a sieve. 
11. Add chutney sauce, catchup, or Chile .«auce. 12. Ad<l tabiu^co or Wor- 
cestershire .'^auce. 13. Add chee.se, such ;us prated Chwldar, crumbled 
HcKjiiefort, or grated Parmesan. It. .\dd curry powder. 

C riant ctrcssing. 

Two standard recipes for cream flrcssinps are :us follows: 
Sour cream dressing (for cold boiled vegetable." and tomatoes) 

1 cup tliic.k sour cream (not too old) 

2 teaspoons vinegar 1 teaspoon sugar 

1 teaspoon salt Dash of cayenne or H teaspoon 

Juice J^ lemon paprika 

Beat the ingredients together thoroughly. 
Sweet cream dressing (for vegetable or fruit salads) 

^2 f^up heavy cream 14 teaspoon salt 

3 tablespoons vinegar Cayenne pepi)er or 14 teaspoon 

paprika 

Beat the cream until it is stifT; add the sea.sonings; add the vinegar 
slowly, and continue to beat until the ingredients are well blended. For 
tomato salads' and meats, fold in 2 tablespoons of grated horst^radish root. 

Mayonnaise dressing. 

Suitable for egg salad, fish or meat salad, and for fruit or vegetable salad, 
although French dressing is often preferred for the hust two. 

Recipe. 

1 cup oil 2/3 teaspoon j)owdered sugar, 
Yolk of 1 egg if desiretl 

2 tablespoons vinegar 2/3 teasjxion salt 

or lemon juice 2/3 teaspoon mustard 

Few grains cayenne 

If onion flavor is desired, rub a bowl with a freshly cut onion or a clove 
of garlic. Put in the seiusonings, and mix them well. Add the entire 
amount of acid, then add the egg yolk and beat the mixture well. Add 
the oil, at first by tablespoons and later in larger quantities, beating the 
mixture with a Dover egg-beater after each addition. When all the oil 
has been used, add any further necessary seiisonings, and beat the mixture 
thoroughly. Cover the bowl with an earthen dish, and keep it in a cool 
place imtil it is needed. 



SALADS 567 

By adding the acid before the oil, the egg is partially curdled or thick- 
ened, and the oil may be added more rapidly than by the older method. 

Mayonnaise may be prevented from separating, and the quantity may 
be increased without materially altering the flavor, by stirring into it, 
after it is mixed, from 1/3 to ^ its bulk of hot cornstarch paste, made in 
the following way : 

2 tablespoons cornstarch 1/3 cup boiling water 

1/3 cup vinegar 

Add the vinegar to the cornstarch in an enamel saucepan, stirring the 
mixture until it is smooth. Add the boiling water, bring the mixture to 
the boiling point, and simmer it gently for 5 minutes. Cool it slightly, and 
beat the desired quantity into the mayonnaise, which will become thicker 
and lighter in color. Chill the dressing before using it. 

This starch-paste binding is good for modifying the excessive oily flavor, 
to which some persons object. It may also be used to conceal the flavor 
of cottonseed, corn, or peanut oil for persons who have become accustomed 
to olive oil. 

Variations in mayonnaise dressing. 

1. The number of raw egg-yolks in the original dressing may be in- 
creased, or part of the yolks used may be raw and the other part hard- 
cooked and pi-essed through a sieve. When several egg-yolks are used, 
somewhat less oil will be required, and the dressing will be stiff enough 
for whipped cream or the stiffly beaten white of egg to be added to it just 
before it is used. Extra salt and other seasoning should be added as 
required. When hard-cooked yolks are substituted entirely for raw yolks, 
the result is called Remoulade sauce. 2. For Potato Mayonnaise use the 
inside of a small freshly baked potato in place of egg-yolks. Remove it, 
mash it, and add: 

1 teaspoon mustard 1 tablespoon vinegar 

1 teaspoon salt 1 teaspoon powered 

Dash of cayenne pepper sugar, if desired 

Force the mixture through a fine sieve, and add 1 tablespoon of vinegar 
and 2/3 cup of oil by tablespoons, as in standard mayonnaise. 3. Use thick, 
slightly soured cream in place of a part of the oil. 4. Use melted butter 
in place of a part of the oil. 5. For fruit salads, use powdered sugar, omit 
the mustard and pepper, and use Ipmon juice in place of vinegar. 6. For 
White Mayonnaise, use a smaller quantity of egg-yolk; substitute lemon 
juice — which whitens the dressing — for vinegar. Beat in whipped cream 
or stiffly beaten egg-whites just before using the dressing. 7. For Green 
Mayormaise, add juice pressed from fresh leaves of spinach, parsley, 
tarragon, or other salad herbs. A combination of two parts of water 
cress and one part of parsley is particularly good. Break the greens in 
pieces, pound them in a mortar until they are thoroughly macerated; then 



OliS .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKIM! 

s(|ut'i'/.(' <»ul the juicr tliroiiuli cliccsc-cloili. Artificial vcuclaM*' coloring 
limy uls<» Im' u.s('<I. S. Ki»r l{c(l Mayoniiiiisc, color the flrc^-sjiin with IoImUt 
or |)iinciilos riiMx-d tlintiit^li a line .sieve, or with ('(Kjkeil heel juice, lii^lily 
colnreil fruit juice, or arlilicial veneliihle colr)ririns. '.I. I-'or Horse-radish 
Mayonnaise, to Ix- used witii meat and fish sahi<ls, add ul)out 3 tal)les|)oonH 
of grated horse- ra<iish, or the same amount (jf preparcil horse-radish. In 
the latter ciuse, s(]ueez{' out the vinegar in which tlie liorse-radish w:ls 
packed, and us«> it instead of tlie |)lain vinegar in the dri-ssing. 10. For 
meat, fish, or shell-fish salads, fo 1 cup of mayomiai.se aiid 2 tal)lesf)oon~ 
each of olives and finely choppe<l pickles. 11. For Mayonnai.s(! Tartan 
or Sauce Tarlare, to he u.sed with fish an<l shell-fish .salads, frie<l fish, 
scallops, and .soft-shell crahs, add onion juice or finely chopped onions and 
finely choppeil cucumher pickles, capers, parsley, and olives. 12. To 1 cup 
of mayonnaise, add \}/i lahlespoons of chutney and stir the mixture until 
it is thoroughly hlendcd. 

Cooked salad dressings. 

Boiled dressing (for vegetable and fruit salads, and for salmon salad). 

Recipe I 

"\'olks of 3 eggs i<4 teaspoon paprika 

1/3 cuj) sugar 3^ teaspoon salt 

1 tea-spoon nuistard 1 cup vinegar 

Whipped cream 

Beat the eggs slightly, and adil to them the other ingredients in the 
order given. Cook the mixture in a double boiler, stirring it constantly 
until it is smooth and thick. This dressing will keep for a long time in a 
cold place. When ready to use the dressing, mix it with equal parts of 
whipped cream. A variation pineapple dressing for fruit salads may be 
made as follows: 

2 eggs 1^ tablespoons butter 
6 tablesfjoons pineapple juice Salt 

3 tablespoons sugar Whipped cream 

Recipe II . 

4 tabIesp(Kms sugar IJ^ cups milk 

2}/^ teaspoons mustard 3 tablesijoons melted butter 

2 teiuspoons salt J^ cup vinegar 

13^ tablespoons flour 2 eggs, slightly beaten 

Cayenne pepper 

Mix the dry ingredients and blend with them '^4 cup of milk. Heat the 
remainder of the milk lo the boiling jjoint, add the butler, thicken it with 
the first mixture, ami boil this for 2 minutes. Cool the mixture slightly, 
add the vinegar gradually, and pour this hot liquid cautiously over the 
slightly beaten egg, stirring it constantly. Cook the dressing over hot 



SALADS 569 

water until it thickens. Cool it immediately in order to prevent curdling, 
and pour it into a scalded glass jar. This recipe makes more than a pint 
of rather mild dressing, which will keep for a long time in a cold place. 

No whipped cream need be added to the dressing. 

For lobster, tuna-fish, or meat salad, omit the sugar and reduce 
the milk to 1 cup; add 2 extra tablespoons of butter, and a little more 
vinegar. Thus modified the dressing has somewhat the consistency of 
real mayonnaise, and is more palatable with meat salads and with lobster 
and tuna-fish salads than is the sweetened fonn. For fruit salads, omit 
the mustard and the butter, and replace the milk with thin cream. 

Bacon dressing. 

Use the fat left from cooking bacon or smoked ham. Heat it, and strain 
it through fine cheese-cloth, if there is much sediment. Use two parts 
of fat to one part of vinegar, thicken it slightly with flour and water well 
blended, and cook the mixture for a few minutes to remove the raw taste 
of the flour. This dressing is generally served hot on dandelion, cabbage, 
and other green salads. It is a good salad dressing for use on camping trips. 



("i!Ai''i'i:i; xxxii 

DESSERTS 
By Winifred Moses 

In planiiiii<; a wcll-halaiiccd meal the dessert must be con- 
sidered, l^ecause if it is used at all it plays a part in the nutritive 
scheme of the meal. It may be as simple as fresh fruit or as 
complex as plum pudding, and the correct choice determines the 
success of the meal both in nutritive value and in palatal)ility. 
If the main part of the meal is made up of less hearty foods, the 
dessert may well be a heavy one, such as steamed pudding with 
hard sauce, or pie. If the other courses are heavy, however, a 
light dessert such as fruit or fruit sherbet may be the best choice. 

Batters and doughs and eggs mixtun^s are discussed elsewhere. 
Other desserts will be briefly considered in this chapter. 

FRUITS 

Fruits may l)e served alone as dessert, fresh or cooked, hot 
or cold. A combination of fruits may be used for variety in 
flavor or color. 

GELATIN DESSERTS 

General directions for making gelatin desserts are as follows : 

(1) Soak the gelatin in about four times its measure of cold liquid for 
from 3 to 5 minutes, or until it issoftenetl; (2) dissolve it by pouring the boil- 
ing liquid over it; or to ha.sten the process set the gehitin and cold liquid 
over boiling water to dissolve; (3) add the sugar to the lu»t mixture, stirring 
it until it is dissolved; (4) add tiie fruit juiee or other flavt)ring; (5) turn it 
immediately into a wet mold, allow it to eool and i)lace it near iee to stiffen; 
(G) if a foamy jelly is desired, before pouring the mixture into the mold, 
allow it to eool and begin to slilTen, then beat it well with a wire whisk 
before pouring it into the wet molil; (7) if fruit is to be use<l, allow the jelly 
to begin to stilTen before adiling it in onler that it may be mixed evenly 
throughout tiie jelly, or it may be added in layers by allowing one layer 

570 



DESSERTS 571 

of jelly to stiffen, adding a layer of fruit, pouring over this more of the 
jelly mixture that has been kept warm, and allowing this layer to stiffen 
before adding more fruit; (8) 1 tablespoon of gelatin will stiffen about 1 
pint of liquid. 

Sponges and Bavarian creams. 

To make sponges and Bavarian creams, when the jelly has 
begun to stiffen, beaten whites of eggs or whipped cream should 
be added, and the mixture beaten to a froth. For a slightly dif- 
ferent texture, the jelly should be beaten to a froth, and the 
beaten egg-whites or the whipped cream lightly folded in. 
The mixture should then be turned into a wet mold and 
chilled. 

Charlottes. 

Charlottes are combinations of cake with whipped cream or 
Bavarian creams or sponges. Thus the suggestions for making 
sponges and Bavarian creams apply to charlottes also. Bread 
dipped in melted butter may be substituted for the cake. Fruit 
sauces may be used instead of the whipped cream or the gelatin 
filling; the dish may be garnished with jelly, jam, or nuts, and 
served with a hard sauce. 

WHIPPED CREAM 

In whipping cream, only cream containing at least 20 per 
cent of butter-fat should be used, and 25 to 40 per cent is better. 
Cream from twelve to twenty-four hours old is best to use in 
order that a small amount of lactic acid may have developed. 
The cream should be held at as low a temperature as possible, 
35° to 45° F., for two hours before whipping and should be 
whipped in a cool room, and cold utensils used. 

The use of viscogen makes it possible to whip fresher, thin- 
ner, or warmer cream than is otherwise advisable. It is made of 
23^ parts of sugar, 5 parts of water, and ^/lo part of milk of lime. 
The ingredients are mixed thoroughly and allowed to stand 24 
hours before being used. The mixture is used in the pro- 
portion of 1 teaspoonful to 2 cups of cream. It is in no wise 
harmful. 



572 A MAMAL or HOME U lA/vr; 

Sijlhilitibs, or whips. 

Vnv syll;il)iil»s, or whips, wliipix'd ciciiii >li<tul(| he lliivorc*! 
as desired, and sweetened l)y adding sifted powdercMl sii^ur 
gradually in the pr()iK)rti()ii of al)()iit '.i tahIesj)oons (jf sUKar to 1 
j)iiit of (ream. It is then (h'aiiied and put near the lee until time 
to serve. It should l)e piled hfz;htly in a glass dish, and garnished 
with fruits, nuts, or eolored sugars. 

Cold steamed rice or dry cake or cookie crumbs may be beaten 
lightly into the whipped cream, and th(> dish may be garnislied 
with a red cherry or red jelly. 

JUNKET 

One junket tablet will .stiffen about 1 quart of milk. (1) Crush the 
tablet and (li.s.solve it in eold milk; (2) heat the remaining milk, .stirring it 
con.stantly, to about 100° F.; a simple test for this temperature, which i.s 
about that of the body, is to let a drop of milk fall on the inside of the 
wrist and if there is no sensation of heat or cold, the temperature of the 
milk about corresponds with that of the body; (3) add the sugar, the 
flavoring, and the dissolved junket tablet, stirring the mixture well; 
(4) turn the mixture into wet molds, and let it stand in a warm place until 
it stifTens, then chill it. Junket may be served with whipped cream, fruit, 
or fruit sauces, nuts, or preserved ginger. 

FROZEN DESSERTS 

Water ices. 

Water ices arc fruit juices sweetened, diluted with water, 
and frozen. 

Frapyes. 

Frappes are ices made of fruit juice, water, antl sugar, frozen 
to the consistency of mush. 

Siherhets. 

Sherbets are water ices to which ha\-e been added a small 
quantity of dissolved gelatin or beaten whites of eggs. They 
may be made of one fruit juice or a combination. The juice 
of one lemon is generally added to each quart of the mixture 
in order to accentuate the flavor of the other fruit. Sometimes 
no water is added to the fruit juice. 



DESSERTS 573 

Sorbets. 

Sorbets are a kind of frozen punch or water ice to which 
various kinds of fruit are added. 

Granites. 

Granites are water ices to which fruit is added after the freez- 
ing. 

Ice creams.* 

Plain ice cream is generally made of thin cream, scalded or 
not, as desired, sweetened, flavored, and frozen. Whole eggs 
or yolks of eggs may be used to make a custard which is then 
frozen. When cream is not plentiful, four parts of milk and one 
part of double cream may be jellied with junket tablets (page 572) 
and used. Eggs may be used with skim-milk in place of cream. 
Arrowroot, cornstarch, or flour is sometimes used in place of 
some of the eggs. It should be mixed with a little cold milk or 
cream, and cooked for 10 minutes, being stirred constantly, 
before being added to the eggs and sugar. If fruit is used, it 
should be crushed, mixed with the necessary amount of sugar, 
preferably in the form of sirup, and allowed to stand for 1 hour. 
It is then added to the partly frozen cream. Strawberries and 
peaches may be put through a potato ricer. Berries, like rasp- 
berries, should be passed through a fine sieve. Fruit flavors 
are considered by some persons not to harmonize well with 
eggs, and are therefore not used in custard creams. 

For each quart of the mixture to be frozen, any of the fol- 
lowing flavorings may be used: 13^2 squares Baker's chocolate; 
]4 cup prepared cocoa; 1 tablespoon vanilla; 2 cups orange 
juice; -/s quart can of pineapple. 

A smooth, velvety texture is desired in ice creams, rather 
than a coarse-grained mass of crystals. Texture is influenced 
by: (1) The amount of butter-fat present. The richer the 
cream, the smoother is the product. (2) The rapidity of freez- 
ing. If frozen rapidly, the cream will be coarse and full of large 

* For further information on experiments in freezing ice cream, see 
Bull. 155, Vt. Exp. Sta. 



574 A MAM AL OF HOME MAKlSd 

water crystals. (8) The amount f)f \vliiiii)inn (luring frfozinR. 
The ail- thus incorporated produces a \\\i}\\, smooth, cusliioijy 
consistencN'. In propeily made ice cream, the water freezes 
in very ihie crystals intersjiersed with minute bubbles of air. 
It should contain from 33 to 40 per cent of air. (4) The age of 
the cream. Cream fresh from the separator or pasteurizer 
|)roduces a coarse-grained ice cream. Cream that is 12 
hours old, held at 32-35° F., makes a smooth mi.xture when 
frozen. 

Frozen puddings. 

Frozen puddings are ice creams made of thin cream or thin 
cream and egg-yolks, highly flavored and containing many 
preserved fruits and nuts. They are generally molded in melon 
molds, lined with lady-fingers. 

Mousses. 

A mousse may be made in either of two ways: (1) heavy cream 
may be beaten until stiff, drained, sweetened, and flavored; 
or (2) the whip from thin cream may be folded into a mixture 
stiffened with gelatin. Mousses are placed in molds, and packed 
for 3 hours in equal parts of ice and salt. Sherbets are fre- 
quently combined with them either as the lining of the mold 
or as a layer of filling. 

Parfaits, biscuits, and souffles. 

For a parfait, biscuit, or souffle, yolks of eggs are cookeil with 
sirup to a thick smooth cream. The mixture is then flavored 
and beaten until it is cold and light, and mixed with drained 
whipped cream. It is then poured into a mold and packed in 
ice and salt for 3 or 4 hours according to the size of the mold. 
Parfaits are not solid like custard ice creams; they have a 
spongy texture. They should not be frozen too hard. 

Biscuits take their name from their size, being in reality 
parfaits frozen in individual forms. 

Souffles are parfaits reinforced with gelatin and a larger pro- 
portion of liquid and frozen in souffle dishes. 



DESSERTS 575 

Freezing. 

(1) Put the ice in a strong cloth or bag, and with a wooden mallet pound 
it fairl}' fine. The finer the ice, the more quickly will the mixture freeze. 
Snow may be used instead of ice. (2) Use coarse salt and ice in the pro- 
portion of: 1 part of salt to 1 part of ice, for mousse and parfait; 1 part of 
salt to from 1 to 3 parts of ice for frapp6 and ice; 1 part of salt to from 1 to 
15 parts of ice for ice cream. The larger the proportion of ice to salt, the 
slower will be the freezing and the finer the grain. Fine salt dissolves more 
readily than coarse, and consequently produces a lower temperature more 
quickly; but it tends to form crusts and bridges which prevent the ice 
from settling in place and fitting around the freezer. (3) Fill the can two- 
thirds full. (4) Place the can, which has been washed with soap and 
water scalded, and cooled, in the freezer, and adjust the crank. Turn the 
crank to see that it is in place. (5) Place the freezer in a dishpan, and 
set the dishpan on a towel to keep it from slipping and to deaden the sound. 
Spread papers on the floor to protect it from ice and salt that may be 
dropped. (6) Fill the freezer half fuU of ice, and add a layer of salt, using 
a long-handled spoon. Add more ice and more salt in layers, placing salt 
near the top so that on dissolving it may trickle over the ice. If snow 
is used, pour in 1 cup of water after the freezer is packed. (7) Turn the 
crank until the mixture is stiff. In freezing water ices it is considered ad- 
visable by some persons to turn the crank for 5 minutes, to stop for 5 
minutes, to turn it again for 5 minutes, and to continue in this way until 
the freezing is completed. Do not draw off the salt water while freezing 
the mixture unless the salt water stands so high that there is danger of 
its getting in the can. 

Packing. 

(1) When the mixture is frozen, take off the crank;- (2) wipe the lid of 
the can carefully, and make sure that the ice and salt are well below the 
lid; (3) lift off the lid and take out the paddle; (4) fruit or whipped cream 
should be added at this time if they are to be used; (5) with a spoon or 
spatula, pack down the cream, a potato-masher being used to make the 
mass compact; (6) replace the lid and put a cork in the hole; (7) draw off 
the water; (8) pack the can as described for freezing; (9) cover the freezer 
with a heavy cloth, and let it stand from 1 to 3 hours before using if pos- 
sible, to develop the flavor; (10) look at it occasionally to see that the 
water does not rise above the opening. If properly watched and repacked, 
the cream can be kept for any reasonable length of time. 



C'IIAITi:i{ XXXIII 

SUGAR COOKERY * 

Hv MAiiV F. Hexuy 

Success in sugar cookciy, as in all other coDkcrN-, rofiuires 
iiitclligent work and to work intelligently means that one must 
understand the nature of the materials used, the changes thai 
occur during the process of cooking, and the conditions that 
bring about desirable, and prevent undesirable, clianges. The 
behavior of sugar under different conditions largely determines 
the quality of the product. 

Kinds of sugar. 

While there are many different kinds of sugar, those of in- 
terest to the housekeeper are of two classes: in the one group are 
the familiar granulated cane or beet sugar, maple sugar, and 
brown sugar; in the other is glucose, commonly' known in the 
form of a clear, sticky sirup. Corn sirup consists of a mixture of 
glucose with dcxtrines and other substances. IMolasses con- 
tains large amounts of cane sugar. These two classes of sugar 
differ greatly in characteristics. Sugars belonging to the first 
class are very sweet and crystallize in large crystals, with which 
all are familiar; glucose is less sweet, and either crystallizes less 
easily in much finer crystals or remains as a heavy sirup of 
creamy, consist enc}'. In certain kintls of candy, this creamy 
texture is one of the requisites. The fact that in the process of 
cooking it is possible to change a part of the crystalline sugar 
into glucose with its finer texture is one of the chief factors in 
making candy. The whole problem of preventing the formation 
of the undesirable granules, or crystals, is simi)ly to convert 
some of the crystalline sugar to glucose antl to avoid conditions 
that may cause candy to grain. 

* Kpopinfj; Christmas. Cornell iicai ling-Course for the Funn Homo, 
Hull. 97. 

57b 



SUGAR COOKERY 577 

How to make candy jine-g rained. 

While the simple boiling of sugar brings about to some extent 
this desired change of crystalline sugar to glucose, the addition 
of a little acid, such as cream-of-tartar, greatly hastens the proc- 
ess. It is possible to get the same result by substituting glucose 
for a part of the sugar in the first place. 

Overcooking, that is, cooking beyond the correct temperature, 
causes graining, for glucose contains more water than does 
crystalline sugar, and overcooking drives off the water and forces 
the glucose to go back to sugar. 

A crystal of sugar falling into the solution may cause the whole 
mass to crystallize. Hence care must be taken not to allow 
crystals to be carried up to the side of the pan and fall back into 
the mixture. Washing down these crystals carefully with a 
swab prevents trouble from this source. 

Stirring the mixture while it is cooking may cause crystalliza- 
tion, especially in the case of fondant, which contains only sugar 
and water. When milk is used, it is necessary to stir the mix- 
ture occasionally to prevent its sticking to the pan. There is not 
the danger, however, of graining in this case, for milk and cream 
both tend to prevent crystallization. Stirring the mixture while 
it is hot or cooling it too suddenly may cause crystallization. 

Tem-perature. 

Another problem is one that concerns the length of time for 
cooking sugar mixtures. It is well known that when sugar is 
heated with water a sirup is formed. If the heating process is 
continued, water is driven off as steam, and the sirup becomes 
thicker, or more concentrated. As the concentration increases, 
the temperature rises. 

The stage of concentration to which the solution is to be 
boiled depends oh the kind of product that is to be made. The 
terms thread, soft ball, hard ball, crack, hard crack, and caramel 
are used to distinguish the different stages. While the ordinary 
method used by amateurs for testing candy consists in dropping 
a little of the solution into cold water, more uniform and accurate 
results may be obtained by the use of a thermometer. A glass 



A MAX I'M. or no mi: makixc; 



tlicnnoinctci- iiimv he hoii^flit :i( ;i druK store for :il)onf SI. 2'). 
In usiiij^ ;i ihcriiioiiu'tcr, (•.■ire should l»c fnkcii that flic luillt is 
ciitiroly covered hy the sinip ;iiid that it docs not icach the 
hottoni of the kettle; if the hull) is exposed to the air or touches 
the metal of the pan, the registered tcinpcrature is lower in iho 
one case and hifz;her in the other than is the actual tcinix-rature 
of the siruj). 

In the absence of a thernionietcr, ho\vc\-er, the t<'st already 
mentioned, droppinji; a little-of the boiling sirup into cold water, 
may ho used with comparatively ir,ooi\ results. The following 
table gives the different stages of concentration, the corresi)ond- 
ing temperatures, and the tests that may be used to determine 
the condition of the sirup. The temperatures refer to a sirup 
made from cane sugar. When glucose or corn sirup is used in 
l)art, the same consistencies are reached at lower temperatures. 

TABLE LII. — Deteumixatiox of Stacks in Sugar Cookeuy 



Slage 


Temperature 


Test 


Thread 


230° 


F. 


Sirup forms a thread when dropped from 




110° 


C. 


a spoon 


Softball 


23()° 


F. 


Sirup forms a .'^oft ball wlien droppe<l into 




113° 


C. 


cold water 


Hard baU . . . . . 


252° 


F. 


Sirup forms a Iianl ball when dropijcd into 




122° 


C. 


cold water 


Crack 


270° 


F. 


Sirup becomes brittle when droppetl into 




132° 


C. 


cold water 


Hard crack. . . . 


293° 


F. 


Sirup becomes very brittle when dropped 




145° 


C. 


into cold water 


Caramel 


310° + 


F. 


Sirup clianges color and becomes very hard 




154° + 


C. 


and brittle when cool 



Utensils. 

Granite utensils usually give better results than do those of 
aluminum or tin, because granite ware is not so good a conductor 
of heat, and hence the temperature is more easily regulated. 

Wooden spoons are preferal)le to metal ones, for wood does 
not conduct heat as does metal. Moreover, the sirup does not 
tend to stick to wood as much as to metal. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
FOOD PRESERVATION 

If foods are to be kept successfully from one season to another, 
it is necessary to have as nearly as possible exact knowledge of 
the conditions that interfere with their preservation. This 
statement refers not only to fruits and vegetables that are 
pickled, preserved with sugar, or put up in cans, but to other 
foods, such as apples, winter vegetables, and eggs — foods that 
do not need to be kept indefinitely but that should be given a 
longer season of usefulness. 

There are two main causes for the spoiling of foods : first, the 
presence of small Kving organisms that feed on the foods and 
change them so that they may cease to be desirable and may 
even become harmful; second, the normal occurrence in such 
foods as fruits, vegetables, eggs, meat, and seeds of all plants, 
of certain substances which, although not alive, are the products 
of living things and have the power of causing fruit to ripen, 
seeds to start growing, meat to soften, and all finally to decay. 

Any food in which the life processes are still going on is sub- 
ject to either of the types of changes just described. Yeast 
plants or bacteria may live on foods and cause them to spoil. 
Bacteria, yeasts, and molds grow everywhere — on the ground, in 
water, and in air. All micro-organisms need warmth, moisture, 
food, and oxygen for growth. Warmth, moisture, light, and 
oxygen also favor the maturing, ripening, and decay changes 
occurring in eggs, meat, fresh fruits, and vegetables. 

If food is to be kept for any length of time, it is necessary to 
retard or prevent natural ripening or developing processes and 
to protect the food from invasion by invisible as well as visible 
enemies. Methods of food preservation may be grouped as 
follows: (1) By means of low temperature; (2) the removal of 
moisture; (3) preservatives; (4) high temperature. 

579 



580 .1 M.WCAL OF IKtME M \KI\(! 

A tciiipciatmc even ;is low as tlic ficc/.iiiti point of walor may 
not kill iiiicro-oi^aiiisiiis nor (jest ro\- ill siicli foo( Is as fruits and 
V('^;('tal)l('s flic siiiisfanccs that ripen and mature tlicin. Such 
a tcmpciatufc docs, however, retard or check all life jjrocesses, 
and therefore its use is a hifihly efricient method of keeping foods 
during limited periods of time. Refrigeration and cold storage 
on a commercial scale are not discussed here, iiut storage at 
moderately low tempei'atures that is practicable for the average 
home is described. 

When foods are dried until their water-content is reduced 
below 20 per cent, micro-organisms are not likely to develop in 
them. When foods are dried, the micro-organisms originally 
present are not destroyed, but their growth and multiplication 
are checked. If moisture is supplied, active life (juickly begins 
again. 

The w'ord preservative covei's a wide I'ange of substances that 
are used in food preservation to retard or prevent the growth 
of micro-organisms. Foods containing any sul)stance sufficientl}' 
active to destroy or check the growth of micro-organisms should 
be at least thoroughly questioned before being used. Preserv- 
ative substances may be divided into three classes: (1) those 
known to l)e harmless, such as sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices; 
(2) those about which there is douljt, such as saltpeter, smoke, 
and liquid smoke; (3) those known to be harmful, such as boric 
acid and the borates, salicylic acid and the salicylates, benzoic 
acid and the benzoatcs, sulfurous acid and the sulfites, and 
formaldehyde. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has issued the 
following statement concerning -the use of canning powders. 
The possibility of harmful efTects from these substances is still 
not fully recognized by many housekeepers. 

"The attention of the Department of Agriculture has recently been 
called to the widespread use, especially in rural communities, of salicylic 
acid in putting up preserves. The Department is aware tliat this practice 
is not confined to salicylic acid under its own name alone, hut that large 
quantities of this acid, and of boric acid as well, are sold under fanciful 
names as preserving powtlers or canning comix)unds at prices which are 
nuich in excess of their real value. In the directions for use, the housewife 



FOOD PRESERVATION 581 

is told to fill the jar with the fruit or vegetables, cover with water, and 
add a teaspoonful of the powder. It is true that these powders may pre- 
vent the decay of the fruit or vegetable, but they also encourage uncleanly 
or careless work, and their excessive use may be attended with very serious 
effects on the health. Salicylic acid is a medicine of the greatest value in 
acute articular rheumatism and certain other diseases. It is well known 
as a poisonous substance, and one of the evils which may accompany its 
use is derangement of the digestion. It is therefore plain that its extensive 
use in food may lead to disturbance of digestion and of health. It is entirely 
practicable to jiut up both fruits and vegetables in such a manner that 
they will keep indefinitely by sterilizing the products by means of heat, 
and there is no excuse for running any risk by the use of preserving 
powders." 

A temperature as high as that of boiling water is destructive 
to the vitality of both micro-organisms and the foods on which 
they may occur. This fact is the corner stone of canning. 

PRESERVATION OF FOOD BY LOW TEMPERATURES 

Preservation of eggs* 

Eggs should be pi'eserved during March, April, May, and 
June, when the production is greatest and the price lowest. 
Spring eggs will keep better than summer or fall eggs. Only 
absolutely fresh eggs should be preserved (see page 534) . In- 
fertile eggs are better than fertile ones for preserving. Dirty 
eggs or eggs that have been washed should not be preserved. 

Of the many ways of preserving eggs in the household, a 
water-glass solution seems to give the best results. Earthen- 
ware jars are the most suitable vessels to use. Danger of loss 
through the presence of one bad egg is reduced by using several 
small instead of one large vessel. Eggs should not be left in 
the preservative longer than one year. The same liquid pre- 
servative should not be used more than one year. If the solu- 
tion evaporates and becomes thick and jelly-like, water should 
be added. Eggs should be rinsed in clear water when they are 
taken from the water-glass solution. They will generally re- 
main good for about two weeks after being removed from the 

* Condensed from Preservation of Eggs, by Earl W. Benjamin in Cornell 
Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 21 



582 .1 MAX CM. OF IIOMI-: MAKIXf! 

preservative, but the sooner tliey are usetl, the better. If if 
is desired to boil them, a small hole should be pricked thrcnij^ii 
the lart^c end of the shell before they arc placed iij the water, 

in order to |)rc\('iit their bi-cakiiiii; when iicatccl. 

Tu wsc wa(cr-<jlu,'i.s .soliUion (for thirty dozen eggs): 
(1) Mix tlioroufzihly 13^ quarts of (•(jniiiicrcial w;it('r-fil;i.><s solution with 
IS {juarts of boiled water; (2) pack clean c^ns into clean earthenware jars 
or tight odorless tulis, two 0-gallon, or three 4-gallon jars being sufficient 
for preserving thirty dozen eggs; (3) cover the eggs with the water-glass 
mixture, and if tiie solution does not cover the eggs at least 2 inches, as 
much as 5 adilitional quarts of water may be added for each 1 1/^ quarts 
of commercial water-glass solution used; (4) cover the jars to prevent 
evaporation; (5) keep the eggs in a cool dark place. 

Preservation ofhufler (E. S. Guthrie). 

Butter can be laid tlown during the summer season to give a 
satisfactory supply for winter use. Sweet cream of good quality 
should be used. It should be pasteurized l)v keeping the con- 
tainer in hot water for 30 minutes at a temperature of 145° F. 
The cream should l)e stirred frequently during the process. It 
should then be cooled to approximately 50° F. It is important 
that the butter should be made from sweet cream rather than 
from sour cream, since the kec^ping quality of sweet-cream l)utter 
is better. This cream should b(^ cluu-ned in the usual way, and 
the butter should contain the usual amount of salt. It may be 
packed solid in stone jars, or it may be made into pound prints 
and packed in jars, either with or without the regular parch- 
ment paper wrappers. The jars should be thoroughly scalded 
and free from taint or odors. The butter should then be com- 
pletely covered with a salt solution in which the amount of salt 
used is about one-fourth the weight of the water. A large 
plate or a header made of some odorless wood should be placed 
on the })utter. Clean stones or bricks may be used to weight 
it. The butter must ])e kept covered with the l)rine solution. 
Butter packed in this way and stored in a cool cellar should keep 
all winter. 

Persons who arc not making their own butter can secure satis- 
factory results by getting fresh butter made from sweet cream 



FOOD PRESERVATION 



583 



and packing it as described. Such butter may be obtained of 
near-by creameries in wholesale lots. The best time to buy is 
from the middle of May to the middle of July. 

Storage of fruit * 

Fruit should be picked carefully and without bruising, and 
should be placed in storage as soon as possible. It may be 
packed in barrels or boxes or 
)jlaced in open trays. When 
the latter method is used and it 
is desired to keep the fruit in 
particularly fine condition, the 
specimens should not be allowed 
to touch one another. Apples 
that are to be kept for a con- 
siderable time, whether ex- 
posed or in packages, should 
be wrapped separately. Light 
manila wrappers, 10 by 10 
inches, may be used. 

Fruit stored in the cellar fre- 
quently does not keep well; 
it either shrivels or becomes 
spongy and decays. This fault, 
which often lies in the storage 
room, may be corrected wholly 
or in part. A fruit cellar should 
be well ventilated. The prin- 
ciple of physics that warm air 
rises and cool air settles, is applicable here. Warm air should 
be permitted to pass out at the top of the room through vent- 
ilators, and cool air from outside should be admitted to the 
room at the bottom (Fig. 121). In a cellar this can be accom- 
plished by means of a shaft leading down the wall from a 
window and opening near the floor. A few windows at the 
top of the wall constitute the system of ventilation for most 
* C. S. Wilson, Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 21. 




Fig. 121. — Cellar ventilation. 



584 A MAMAL OF IJOMK MAKJ.M! 

farm cellars. AIiIioukIi this arraiiKcmonl is accoptod as suf- 
ficient and in many cases ^ives fairly i^aod satisfaction, the 
temperature cannot he kept so nearly miitorm ami correct a,s 
when intake shafts aie used. 

.\ uniform temperat ure of oO'^ !■'. in I he celLir will keep fruit in 
ffood condition for months. The ideal temperature is about 
31° or 32° J'\, hut this cannot usutilly he maintained in a cellar. 
The temperature should not he permitted to fluctuate. Fruit 
that is kept at 34° F. durinff the ni}z;ht and at 00° F. during the 
day will soon decay. In the farm cellar, uniformity of temper- 
ature is maintained l)y means of the ventilation, which should 
be watched very closely. In cellars where it is imjKjssihIe to con- 
trol the temperature and humidity as desired, the fruit may he 
wrapped in paper and packed in hardwood sawdust. 

Fruit may also be stored in pits. This method is described by 
L. H. Baile}' as follows: ''Many apples, particularly russets and 
other firm varieties, keep well when buried after the manner 
of pitting potatoes. Sometimes, however, they taste of the 
earth. This may l)e prevented by setting a ridge-pole over the 
pile of apples in forked sticks, and making a roof of hoards in 
such a way that there will be an air space over the fruit. Then 
cover the hoards with straw and earth. Apples seldom keep 
well after removal from a pit in spring." 

Storage of vegetables* 

Storage requirements for different vegetal )les vary widely. 
Some vegetables are easily kept. If the parsnip is merely left 
in the ground, oncoming spring will find it not only well pre- 
served but actuall}' improved in qualit}'. On the Other hand, 
the sweet potato and the squash arc kept successfully only 
wluni the temperature is high and uniform and the humidity is 
low. 

Certain fundamental principles appl}^ to the storage' of all 
sorts of vegetables under all conditions. The important factors 
to consider are temperature, moisture, and ventilation. A 
temperature that is too high favors decomposition; a tempera- 

* Paul Work. Cornell Reading-Course for the Farm Home, Bull. 21. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 585 

ture that is too low causes freezing, with the subsequent break- 
ing down of vegetable tissue. A dry atmosphere causes fruits 
and vegetables to dry out and shrivel; while undue moisture, 
especially when combined with high temperature, favors the 
growth of destructive fungous and mold organisms. Ventila- 
tion is not only a means of regulating these conditions, but it is 
also important in itself in removing gaseous products that may 
be more or less injurious. 

Proper condition of the produce is essential for successful 
storage. Vegetables should be nearly mature when stored, but 
over-ripeness is to be avoided, as it favors early decay. Ripen- 
ing processes continue, though slowly, after storage, and due 
allowances must be made for these in determining the maturity 
of the vegetable to be stored. Only the very finest specimens 
should be selected — those that are firm and of good size and 
shape. It is at injured spots that decay begins, and even bruises 
that can be found only by careful examination are serious; hence 
the necessity for the greatest care. 

There are wide differences among varieties of vegetables in 
their adaptability to storage. In general, the late-maturing 
sorts are the most suitable. 

Many methods of providing the conditions necessary for suc- 
cessful storage have been devised. The first place to suggest 
itself is the basement of house, barn, or outbuilding. The house 
cellar, however, is likely to be too warm and dry, particularly 
if there is a furnace in it. It is likewise undesirable to have a 
large amount of vegetable matter beneath the dwelling. How- 
ever, these objections may be overcome partly. Small quanti- 
ties of fruits or vegetables may be stored in a corner of the cellar 
away from the furnace, and may be protected from drying out 
by moss or by soil, preferably of sandy type. If a large quantity 
is to be kept, a separate compartment may be boarded off by a 
double partition filled with some nonconductor of heat, such as 
dry sawdust. This compartment should be ceiled, and should 
be provided with ventilating openings or flues so that it may be 
quite independent of the remainder of the house. Vents should 
be arranged at both ceiling and floor. Since warm air rises and 



586 



.1 .\/.i.vr.w. or iioMH MAKi.yc 



cold air falls, it is possible to control the tciiipcratiirc hy means 
of these vents. While the weather remains warm in the fall, tlu; 
flues are closed during the day and opened at niKlit. When the 
weather becomes more severe, the plan is reversed, and the 
warmer air of midday is admitted. 

Special cellars and pits for storap;e of ve^etahles may l»e con- 
structed at small cost and are very satisfactory. A simple typo 
is shown in Fip;. 122. A pit 1 or 2 feet deep is duK in a well- 
drained spot, and a foundation wall of stakes and hoanls, or, 
better, of concrete, is built around it. On this wall, rafters 
are erected for the support of roof boards. The roof is covered 




Fiu. 122. — The storage trench. 

with soil and sod, or with straw and a li.u;ht covering; of earth, 
or with manure. Such a pit will last several years, especially 
if a rot-resistant wood, as the so-called "pecky" cypress, is used. 
With the specific directions that are furnished by cement manu- 
facturers, concrete work is within the range of any handy man, 
and a permanent concrete cave or pit may be Iniilt with little 
expense and troul)le. No matter what the form of construction, 
one or two small ventilators should be provided at the top of 
the cave, and one at the bottom of the door. These should be 
arranged to open and close. 

Burying vegetables is one of the easiest, as well as one of the 
most successful, methods of storing them. It keeps them in 
good condition antl involves no expense. One objection to this 
method is that it is often difficult or impossible to get at the 
vegetables at certain times during the winter. However, a con- 



FOOD PRESERVATION 587 

siderable quantity may be taken out at one time and kept in the 
house cellar for a week or two. A site, preferably on sandy soil, 
well drained and well protected from surface wash, should be 
chosen. An oblong pit of the required size and about a foot deep 
should be made. The bottom of the pit should be lined with 
straw, and the vegetables carefully heaped on it. They should 
then be covered with a layer of leaves and straw for protection 
and to make their removal easier. Lastly, soil should be added 
to a depth from 4 to 8 inches. Wisps of straw may be set at 
intervals in the peak for ventilation. Great care must be taken 
early in the season not to cover the vegetables too closely, as 
speedy decay will result from heating and sweating. As the 
weather becomes severe, manure may be piled on to give ad- 
ditional protection. 

When several vegetables are to be stored, or when they are to 
be removed at different times during the winter, it is well to 
make the pit very long and narrow. Earth partitions may then 
be built in as the work progresses. The different compart- 
ments may be marked with stakes. One compartment can be 
opened without disturbing the others. 

The root crops require very simple treatment for storage. 
The tops should be removed, and the roots may be kept by any 
of the general methods described. 

Cabbage also may be stored in any of the ways given. Heads 
should not be over-mature and should remain in the garden as 
long as there is no danger of severe freezing. They should be 
cut near the ground, with most of the leaves about them. When 
a quantity is to be stored, the trench may be made by throwing 
furrows on both sides and finishing with the shovel. The heads 
are then laid in order, perhaps two or three wide and two deep. 
The plow may be used to begin the covering, but the work should 
be completed by hand. If the heads are not mature at storing 
time, they should be lifted with the roots and placed in a trench, 
roots down, as close as they will stand. A little sand should be 
packed about the roots as the work goes on. In this way the heads 
will continue growth and become thoroughly solid. Danish Ball 
Head is best for winter storage under most New York conditions. 



588 .1 MAM AL OF J](J.\JJ:-MAKI.\(J 

Celery should he lifted entire and set erect in trenehos or pits 
with loose soil ahoiit the roots. In storing; this eroj), Kreat 
care must Ite taken to avoid covering too heavily at fii-st. Oiant 
Pascal and Winter (2"<'*'" are^ood sorts for winter use. 

Squash requires a warm place for storage. A temperature 
of o()° l'\ or moi-e is f^ood. Slu'lves or hins in a house or a dry 
cellar are preferable to huryinj;. 

Dioi.NC FuviTs .v.N'u vk(;i:tahlk.s 

Dried products do not rc(|uii'e expensi\'e containers, and they 
can be stor(>d almost indeiinitel>' under pioper conditions in 
relatively small space. One bundled pounds of fresh ve<ietal)les 
may be reduced to an averap;e of ten pounds by dryinj:;. Vege- 
tables and fruits, if properly dried, retain nmch of their natural 
flavor and food value; in some cases they are more palatable 
than when canned, in othei-s they are less palatable. Drj'ing 
does not seem to injure the nutritive value of foods. 

Early apples, sweet corn, carrots, partly ripened lima beans, 
string beans, well-matured peas, sweet potatoes, certain types of 
squash, pumj:)kins, and some of the berries lend themselves 
particularly well to dryinj";, either in small quantities for home 
consumption or in larger quantities for sale. Blackcap, purjikv 
cane, and in some cases red raspberries make good dried prod- 
ucts. Blackl)erries also may be dried, but the results are not 
so good as with raspberries. Prunes, apricots, peaches, any of 
the sweet varieties of pears, strawberries, sweet cherries, and 
in some cases sour, arc also successfully dried, though these 
fruits may usually be sold in the fresh state to commercial firms 
at a reasonaljle jirofit. 

Proper ventilation that allows for a free circulation of dry air 
is more important than heat in drying foods. For example, 
an electric fan placed before a drier may accomplish excellent 
results without the aid of heat. However, the use of heat is more 
practicable in most homes. 

The temperature for drying should be rather low to prevent 
scorching, but the more quickly the food is dried, the Ijetter 
will be the color and the flavor. The temperature of the drier 



FOOD PRESERVATION 589 

cannot be determined very accurately except by using a ther- 
mometer. An oven thermometer or a chemical thermometer 
may be suspended in the oven or the drier. The greatest care 
should be given to the regulation of the heat, because the 
temperature in the drier may rise rather quickly, and the 
product may scorch. The food should be stirred from time 
to time both to prevent scorching and to obtain a uniform 
product. 

In climates where successive sunny days may be counted on, 
certain foods may be dried outdoors. If food is to be dried over 
a kitchen stove or outdoors, it should be carefully protected 
from dust and from flies. Coarse cheese-cloth may be laid over 
the food in the house. If the food is outdoors, the covering of 
cheese-cloth should be raised by means of supports or racks so 
that it will not rest directly on the food and thus allow possible 
contamination from flies. Especially in the case of food that 
is entirely or partly dried outdoors and that is to be used without 
being cooked, every precaution should be taken to prevent 
the spreading of certain intestinal diseases that may be carried 
by flies. 

Equipment for drying. 

A very slow oven may be used for drying fruits and vegetables 
spread on papers, large platters, sheets of metal, or pieces of 
heavy screening with an inch or two turned down at opposite 
ends for supports. The heat must be carefully controlled to 
prevent scorching. The oven door should be left slightly open 
to allow a circulation of air to carry off the moisture set free by 
evaporation. 

Barrel hoops or frames made of laths may be covered with 
galvanized iron netting or with cheese-cloth and suspended 
above the stove by a rope with a pulley arrangement, which 
makes it easy to adjust the trays at the proper height. Some 
housekeepers use window screens on bricks as supports. A 
piece of heavy galvanized iron screening with 4 or 5 inches on 
two opposite sides bent down to form supports is both simple 
and effective. A sheet of tin laid over a dripping pan containing 



590 .1 M.wiM. or iioMi: M.\i\i\r; 

a small amount of hoi watci' makes a t^ood siihslidilc for a 
certain type of commercial drier. 

There are several small driers on the market that ^ive satis- 
factory results. They are of such size that the\' can In- placed on 
the top of a kitchen stove. J'ortahle outiloor drieis are conven- 
ient if nnich lood is to he dried. Home-made diy kilns are usecj 
in .some sections of the country. 

Any piece of home-made apparatus that provides means for 
free circulation of air and for rej^ulatin^ the temperature is 
likely to prove satisfactory. A {Jevico with metal sides that will 
confine the heated air in a {j;iven channel during its upward 
cour.sc throuf^h the trays of food, uses heat economically. 

Drying fruits. 

All fruits that are to he di'ied should !)(> well lipened hut not 
over-iipe. 

Fruits that are dried with 1h(^ skins on should he <lii)])ed 
quickly, l)y means of a wire basket or a piece of cheese-cloth, into 
a boiling solution of lye made in the proportion of }A pound of 
concentrated lye to 8 gallons of water. They should then be 
rinsed two or three times in clear water. The lye perforates 
the skin and thus facilitates evaporation. Moreover, it de- 
stroys micro-organisms that might cause spoilage. 

Most fruits are improved by being dipped into a thin sirup 
before being dried. If the fruit is to be used in puddings, cakes, 
breads, breakfast c(M-eals, or as a confection, it may be spi-inkled 
with sugar before l)eing dried; if it is to be cooked for sauce, little 
or no sugar should be added. 

Metal trays for drying fruits should be covered with cheese- 
cloth to prevent acid action. Wrapping paper may be used on 
trays in an oven. 

Juicy fruits require more ventilation in thying than tlo such 
fruits as apples. 

When fruit is sufficiently dry, it should be impossible to pre.ss 
water out of the freshly cut ends of the pieces. The natural 
grain of the fruit should not be apjiarent on cut surfaces. The 
fruit should be leathery or pliable, and not so dry that it will 



FOOD PRESERVATION 591 

snap or crackle. In general, the drier the fruit is, the less chance 
there is for spoilage; but sweet fruits can safely contain more 
moisture than those with a low sugar-content. 

Fruit should be cooled quickly after being dried in order to 
prevent a shriveled and unattractive appearance. 

Fruit juices or fruit pulps may be concentrated by being 
boiled over direct heat and then dried in the top of a double 
boiler, or in platters or enamel pans set in a moderate oven, or 
in the sunshine. The juice or pulp is sufficiently concentrated 
when on cooling it makes a highly glazed, tough, dry, leathery 
jelly. The leather may then be dried in thin sheets, sprinkled 
with granulated sugar, rolled like a jelly-roll, and then cut 
across in pieces, or it may be dried in a sheet ^ inch thick and 
cut in cubes. 

Drying vegetables. 

Equally as great care shoukl be given to the selection and 
preparation of vegetables for drying as for canning. Good 
results depend largely on the use of vegetables that are abso- 
lutely fresh, young, tender, and perfectly clean. All vegetables 
should be washed and cleaned thoroughly before being dried. If 
steel knives are used for paring and cutting the vegetables, they 
should be kept clean and bright in order to prevent discoloration. 

After being cleaned and prepared, the vegetables should be 
blanched as for canning (pages 605 and 612 to 614) but not dipped 
in cold water. This removes the strong odor and flavor from cer- 
tain kinds of vegetables, and softens and loosens the fiber, which 
allows the moisture in the vegetables to evaporate more quickly 
and uniformly. Moreover, it quickly coagulates the protein and 
thus helps to retain the natural flavors. After being blanched 
for the required number of minutes, the vegetables should be 
drained and either placed between two towels or exposed to the 
sun and air for a short time to remove the surface moisture. 

Storage of dried foods. 

Dried foods should always be stored in containers that will 
exclude light and insects and in a warm dry place, such as an 



'>\r2 A MAM AL OF llOMl'l MAKISd 

airy attic The hcst coMtaiiicr is a tin liox, huckct, or can fitlod 
with a reasonably ti^lit cover. Perhaps the most convenient and 
cheapest container is the snuili paper \ni]£.. Small amoimts of 
food should he put in each haji;. This will pn^vent the opening 
(tf any dried product that cannot ho consumed in a short time. 
The upper pait of the hap; is twisted to form a neck. The 
neck is hent over and tied with a string;. The entire hap; is 
then painted with a coat of melted paraffin by means of a small 
l)rush or a frazzled end of a piece of rope. This makes the ixig 
practical!}' proof against insects. To protect them further from 
in.sect ravages, the hags should i)e labeled and packed in a 
tin container with a tight-fitting cover. A large number of 
bags can be stored in an ordinary lard can. Paraffin-coated 
paper containers of various sizes can be found on the market. 
If such containers are used, they should be stored as are the 
paper bags. 

When vegetal)les are first taken from the drier, if completely 
dried thej'^ are very brittle. They are more easily handled and 
are in better condition for storing if allowed to stand from one 
to three hoin-s to absorb enough moisture to make them pliable 
before they are put into ])ags or stored otherwise. If it is not 
convenient to store products immediately and they are allowed 
to stand for several days, they should be heated to 180° F. to 
destroy any insect eggs that may ])e on them. Care should be 
taken not to heat the vegetal)les higher than 180° F. 

Apples, which absorb moisture readily, should be stored in a 
tight box or barrel lined with paper in preference to cloth sacks. 

SALTING VEGETABLES * 

Equi'pment. 

A suppl}^ of clean wooden kegs or stone crocks is the first 
requisite. For home use the smaller sizes are preferable as a 
rule, because the contents will then be used up more quickly 
and there will be less chance of molding from standing too long 
after the kegs or crocks are opened. Wooden kegs holding 5 

* Rounil, L. A., and Lanfj;, H. L. Preservation of vegetables by fermenta- 
tion and salting. Fanners' Bull. SSI, U. S. Dei)t. of Agr. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 593 

or 10 gallons are a convenient size. New kegs are preferable, 
but old ones, such as beer or cider kegs, may be used if they are 
thoroughly washed and steamed to remove any undesirable 
odor or flavor which might be imparted to the foods packed in 
them. Wooden vessels of yellow or pitch pine are undesirable, 
since they are apt to give a disagreeable taste to the foods. 
Stone crocks or jars holding from 1 to 5 gallons are convenient. 
Stoneware is less likely to absorb flavors than wood, and stone 
jars may be obtained in smaller sizes than wooden kegs. Wide- 
mouthed bottles or glass jars, which are not suitable for canning, 
may also be used for salting or fermenting small quantities of 
foods. 

A supply of ordinary fine salt, which can be purchased in bulk 
for about 2 cents a pound, is most satisfactory for general use. 
Table salt will do veiy well, but is rather expensive if large 
quantities' of vegetables are to be preserved. The rather coarse 
salt (known in the trade as "ground alum salt"), which is used 
in freezing ice cream, can be used. Rock salt should not be used 
because it is too coarse and is likely to contain impurities. 

Clean white cloth (cheese-cloth or muslin) is necessary for 
covering the material after it is packed into the container. It 
will be convenient to cut this into circular pieces about 6 
inches larger in diameter than the stone crock or keg. Two 
or three thicknesses of cheese-cloth or one thickness of muslin 
or heavier cloth should be spread over the top of the vege- 
tables. 

Round pieces of board about 1 inch or more in thickness will 
be needed to put on top of the cheese-cloth. The boards should 
be a little smaller in diameter than the inside of the crock or the 
head of the keg or tub, so that they will slip in and out easily. 
The pieces may be sawed out at a lumber mill, or may be made 
at home by fastening together several boards with cleats and 
rounding them with a small saw and a carpenter's shave. Al- 
most any wood may be used except yellow or pitch pine, which 
is likely to impart an undesirable flavor to the vegetables. For 
small containers, if preferred, heavy plates of suitable size 
can be used instead of boards. 



5U4 .4 MAMAL OF llUME MAKING 

One or nK)r(> clean hricks or soino cloaii stones may bo used as 
weights to hold down the mass in the ke^ (»r crock. 

Paradin is needed to jjour over the M(|uid in the containers 
(after fermentation lias ceased) to prevent mold. 

A pair of kitchen scalos or steelyards and a (piart or gallon 
li(inid measmc complete the necessary e(|iiii)ment. 

Fermcntatio)i with dry •■salting. 

As has ah'eady boon stated, fermentation with diy salting 
consists in jxickinfj; the material with a small amount of salt. 
No Walter is added, for the salt extracts the water from the veRC- 
tablcs and forms the brine. The method, in general, is as fol- 
lows: 

Wash the vegetables, drain ofT the surplus water, and weigh 
them. For each 100 pounds of the vegetables weigh out 3 
pounds of salt; for smaller quantities use the same proportion 
(3 per cent by weight) of salt. Cover the bottom of the keg, 
crock, or other container with a layer of the vegetables about 
1 inch thick and sprinkle over this a little of the salt. Do not 
add too much of the salt to the first layers packetl, but try to 
distribute it equally among the difTerent layers so that the 
quantity w^hich has been weighed out will be sufficient for the 
given quantity of vegetables packed. If a Httle of the salt is 
left over, it can be added to the top layer, but if more has to 
be added than has been weighed out, the finished jiroduct will 
taste too salty. Continue adding layers of the material sprin- 
kled with salt until the container is about three-fourths full. 
Sprinkle the last of the salt on the top laj'er ancl spread over it 
one or two thicknesses of cheese-cloth, tucking them tlown at 
the sides. On the cloth place one of the round pieces of board 
or a plate, and on this put a clean stone or one or two clean 
bricks. The size of the weight tlepends on the quantity of ma- 
terial being preserved. For a 5-gallon keg a weight of 10 pounds 
will be sufficient, but if a larger liarrel is used, a heavier weight 
will be needed. The weight addetl should l)e sufficient to ex- 
tract the juices to form a brine, which will cover the top in 
about twenty-four hours and sometimes it may be necessary 



FOOD PRESERVATION 595 

to add more stones after the material has stood a while, if a 
brine does not form. 

After it is packed, allow the container to stand in a moderately- 
warm room to ferment. The salt and pressure of the weight 
soon extract water from the vegetables and form a brine which 
soon covers the whole mass. The stone and board serve to 
keep the vegetables beneath the surface of the liquid. If the 
weight is not sufficient for this purpose, a larger stone or more 
bricks should be added. As the fermentation goes on, bubbles 
arise to the surface of the hquid. The rate of fermentation de- 
pends principally on the temperature. In warm weather it 
requires only eight to ten days; in cool weather two to four weeks 
may be necessary. When bubbling stops, fermentation is com- 
plete. A good way to determine this is to tap the receptacle 
gently; if no bubbles arise, fermentation is finished. 

The containers should then be placed in a cellar or other cool 
storeroom and the surface of the liquid treated to prevent the 
development of a scum of mold. If this is not done, a thin film 
will appear on the surface of the brine soon after fermentation 
ceases, which will spread rapidly and develop into a heavy 
folded membrane. This scum is a growth of micro-organisms 
which feed upon the acid formed by fermentation. If allowed 
to grow undisturbed, all the acid will eventually be destroyed 
and the fermented material will spoil. This scum must be 
prevented from forming if the product is to be kept for a con- 
siderable time. Exclusion of air from the surface of the brine 
will entirely prevent its formation. There are three feasible 
methods of accomplishing this. 

The first method is to cover the surface with very hot melted 
paraffin. If the paraffin is sufficiently hot to make the brine 
boil when poured upon it, a smooth, even layer will be formed 
before hardening, making a perfectly air-tight seal. Before 
adding paraffin the containers should be set where they will 
not be disturbed until ready for use, as any attempt to move 
them afterwards may break the seal and necessitate resealing. 
Paraffin has the advantage of ease in handling, and of being 
easily separated from the fermented vegetables when they are 



')% .1 .u.i\7 .1/. or lit > mi: mak/xc 

ivinovod. I'urlhcr, il can Ik- iiscfl over anaiii and thus the ex- 
pense is small in I he lon^ lun. If it heeonies (lir(y it can he 
purified by heating very hot and st ruining throush several ihiek- 
nesses of cheese-elolh. One disadvantaf^e in the use of paraffin 
is that the formation of f^as Ix'low the layer will break the seal; 
therefore, it should not be used until fermentation haw cetised. If 
the paraffin bretdcs, it should \h' removed, remelted, and replaced. 

The second method is to pack a barrel or kefi; full and then re- 
place the head. Fill tlu^ barrel or kefj; as full as possible with the 
fresh material to be fermented and then add the round board 
and weijj;hts exactly as described on page 594. Let the barrel 
stand for 48 hours to allow part of the pas to escape. Then 
remove the board and wei<!;ht and head the barrel or keg up 
tight, l^ore a small hole (about ^2 inch) in the head and fill the; 
barrel full with brine (made bj' dissolving ^4 cup salt in 1 gal- 
lon water) so that there is no air space. Allow the barrel to 
stand until the fermentation has stopped, adding more brine 
at intervals to kecj) the container full. When bubbling has 
stopped, plug the vent tight. If the barrel does not leak, fer- 
mented products put up in this manner will keep indefinitely. 

The third method is to use an oil, like cottonseed oil, which 
floats on the surface and efTectively prevents air from reaching 
the brine. Brine covered w'ith a layer of cottonseed oil or some 
other wholesome oil about 3^ inch thick will keep indefinitely. 
The only objection to hquid oils is the difficulty of getting at the 
preserved vegetables without getting them covered with the 
oil, which is difficult to remove. Before the vegetables are to 
be removed the oil shoidd be skimmed or siphoned ofT from the 
surface of the brine. 

If oil or paraffin is used to cover the brine, it is advisable, 
after fermentation is finished, to adjust the amount of brine 
used and weights on the cover so that the brine comes up to but 
not over the cover. In this case only the l)rine exposed between 
the cover and sides need l)e oiled or paraffined, thus saving 
covering material. 

Exi)eriments have shown thai the following vegetables may 
be preserved successfully undei- home conditions by the above 



FOOD PRESERVATION 597 

method of fermentation by dry salting: cabbage (sauerkraut), 
string beans, beet tops, and turnip tops, and it is probable that 
others maybe added to this list as a result of further experiments. 

Fermentation in acid hrine. 

Some vegetables which do not contain sufficient water are 
better fermented by covering them with a weak brine. This 
may be done as follows: Wash the vegetables, drain off the 
surplus water, and pack them in a keg, crock, or other utensil 
until it is nearly full (within about 3 inches of the top of the 
vessel) . Prepare a weak brine as follows : To each gallon of water 
used add 3^ pint of vinegar and 3<4 cup of salt and stir until the 
salt is entirely dissolved. The amount of brine necessary to 
cover the vegetables will be about equal to one-half the volume 
of the material to be fermented. This is very easily calculated 
by knowing the contents of the container used. For example, if 
a 5-gallon keg is to be packed, 23^ gallons will be needed. It is 
best to make up at one time all the brine needed on one day. 
A clean tub or barrel can be used for mixing the brine. Pour the 
brine over the vegetables and cover as described on page 594. 
Set the vessel and its contents away in a moderately warm room 
to ferment. When fermentation has stopped, the container 
should be placed in a cool cellar or storeroom and the surface 
of the liquid treated to prevent mold by one of the methods de- 
scribed above. Before adding the paraffin or cottonseed oil, 
any scum or mold which may have formed on the surface of the 
liquid should be removed by skimming. 

Experience has shown that the following vegetables may be 
preserved satisfactorily by fermenting in brine: cucumbers, 
string beans, green tomatoes, beets, beet tops, turnip tops, corn, 
and green peas. The general directions given above should be 
followed, but some modifications are desirable in the preserving 
of individual vegetables by this method. 

Salting without fermentation. 

In this method the vegetables are packed with enough salt to 
prevent fermentation or the growth of yeasts or molds. The 



r/.lS .1 MAXIM. OF IfOMi: MAKixr; 

f(»ll()\viiiK (lircctioiis >li'»iil(l lie fnllducd in aliiiin vc^cl aides: 
\\;i>li llio V('f;('fal)l('s, drain oil" I he water, and llicii wei^h 
tlieiM. Vor each 100 pounds of veK^'liil'l*'-"^ weiuli oiil 2") pounds 
of salt. For sniailei' (|uantifies use the same proportion of 
salt (one-fourth of the weij^ht of the ve{;<'tal)l(\s). Spread 
a layer of the \-eji;etal)les al)out 1 incii deep on tlu; bottom 
of a clean kej;, tub, or crock, and sprinkle heavily with some 
of the salt. Try to distribute the salt evenly atnonK the 
different layers packed so tiiat the quantity weighed f)ut will 
be just enough to pack the vegetables. Continue adding layers 
of vegetables and salt until the container is nearly full and then 
cover with the clean cloth, board, and weight, as in the case of 
fermentation by dry salting. The keg or other container should 
then be set aside in a cool place. If the salt and pressure of the 
weight have not extracted sufficient brine to cover the vege- 
tables, after 24 hours, i)repare a strong brine by dissolving 1 
pound of salt in 2 quarts of water and pour enough of this over 
the vegetables to come up to the round wootlen cover. There 
will be a small amount of bubbling at the start, as in the case 
of the fermented vegetables, but this will not continue long. 
Just as soon as the bubl)ling has stopped, the surface of the licjuid 
should be protectctl by one of the methods described on 
page 595. 

E.xperiments have shown that the following vegetables may l)e 
satisfactorily preserved by the above method: dantlelions, beet 
tops, turnip tops, spinach, chard, kale, cabbage, string beans, 
green peas, and corn. 

Care and storage. 

If properly prepared and stored, fermented and salted prod- 
ucts will keep for a long tiin(>. It is absolutely necessary to 
prevent mold from growing on the surface of the brine of fer- 
mented vegetables by the addition of paraffin or in some other 
way. Protection of the surface of salted vegetal)les is desirable, 
but not necessary if the containers are covered to prevent the 
evaporation of the brine. Practically all of the trouble with the 
fermented or salted products may be traced to carelessness in 



FOOD PRESERVATION 599 

protecting the surface of tlie brine. In case mold sliould de- 
velop upon the surface or the brine should become evaporated 
so that the upper layers of the food spoil, this does not mean 
necessarily that the entire contents of the vessel have spoiled, 
even though the upper layers may have a very disagreeable 
odor. The molds and other organisms which cause the spoil- 
ing do not penetrate rapidly to the lower layers, and by care- 
fully removing the spoiled material from the top, adding a 
little fresh brine and pouring hot paraffin on the top, the re- 
mainder of the contents of the vessel may be saved. After 
fermentation has ceased, the containers of salted and fermented 
vegetables should be stored in a cool place. They should be 
protected from rats, mice, and vermin, which might eat through 
the paraffin layer and get at the contents. 

Preparation of fermented and salted vegetables for the table. 

Some fermented and salted vegetables, like cucumbers, are 
eaten raw; others, like cabbage (sauerkraut), are usually cooked. 
In general the fermented and salted products may be prepared 
for the table in much the same manner as the fresh vegetables, 
except that before being cooked they should be soaked in fresh 
water for several hours or longer, if necessary, to remove the 
salt, the water being changed several times. In some cases it 
may be necessary also to change the water once or twice during 
the boiling of the salted vegetables. In this, one should be 
guided by taste. 

Fermented vegetables, after being removed from the con- 
tainer, should be rinsed thoroughly in fresh water and then 
cooked without soaking if a product having a decidedly acid 
flavor is desired. If one does not desire the acid flavor, it may 
be modified to any extent or removed almost entirely by soak- 
ing the fermented vegetables as directed above for the salted 
product. 

CANNING 

Successful preservation of food by canning depends on two 
things: first, the sterilization of the food and the can, that is, 
the complete destruction by heat of all life in or on the food, 



(i()U A MAM AJ. OF IU)ME MAKlMi 

and oil all jjailsof (he can thai arc lo conic in contact with the 
food; second, .sul).sc(|ucnt care to prevent further entrance of 
niicro-orfianisins. 

The |)resenc<' of aii' in a can will not cause food to sjjoil, pro- 
vided the air is sterile, that is, freed from all living organisms. 
A half-filled can of fruit will keep perfectly if fruit, can, rubber, 
and cover are sterile, if the air space above the fruit is sterile, 
and if inicro-orj;anisnis cannot enter the can. The precaution 
sometimes taken to I'un a knife or a spoon down the sides of a 
can in order to remove the few bubbles that may be there, is 
eonse(iuently unnecessary. Unless the spoon or knife has been 
boiled, its use in removing air may even endanger the keeping 
(lualities of a can of food, foi- it may hold oi-ganisms that thus 
find their way into the can. 

It is now known that some niicio-oiganisnis that cause foods 
to spoil nvay assume two forms, the spore and the vegetative 
form. When conditions are unfavoral)le to their growth, they 
go into the spore form, cease growing and reproducing, and be- 
come inactive and ver}' resistant to the influence of heat. It is 
their method of tiding over a hard time. 

In the spore form micro-organisms are much more difficult to 
destroy than in the vegetative form, and some of them are able 
to resist for many hours a temperature even as high as the boil- 
ing point of water. During a dry season spores occur much 
moi'e frequently than usual on fruits and vegetables, anil the 
difficulties of successful canning may, therefore, l)e greatly 
increasetl. As soon as growth conditions become favorable — 
when warmth, moisture, and food are supplied — spores liegin 
changing over to the active, growing, vegetative form, and in 
their greater liveliness they lose much of tlu^ir power to resist 
heat, cold, and other unfavorable influences. These facts 
explain why canned foods sometimes spoil even after long boil- 
ing and careful and complete sealing; the boiling temperature 
may not have l)een sufficient to destroy the spores, which .soon 
change over to the active growing state. The problem of suc- 
cessful canning is, therefore, how even the most resistant micro- 
organisms may be kilh^d. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 



601 



The commercial canner has solved the problem of steriliza- 
tion by the use of steam under pressure. In this way a tempera- 
ture higher than the boiling point of water, and hence more de- 
structive, is obtained. With a sufficiently high temperature, a 
relatively short time of cooking is required to sterilize food. 

Equipment for canning. 

If canning is to be done successfully, even on a small scale, 
it is necessary to have some equipment that will lighten labor 
and save time. Such equipment may be bought especially for 




Fig. 123. — Sterilizer, showing false bottom as a rack. 

the purpose, or it may be made from something already on 
hand. If possible, a canner should be seen in operation before 
it is bought. 

If the so-called cold-pack method (page 606) is used, the first 
and most essential part of the canning equipment is a recep- 
tacle in which the cans of food may be steamed or boiled. This 
receptacle and its parts are generally spoken of as the canner or 
the canning outfit. Canners suitable for home use are of four 
general types: (1) hot-water outfits; (2) steam cookers; (3) 
water-seal outfits; (4) steam-pressure outfits. 

While a small hot-water canner may easily be devised at 



CtO'J 



.1 MAXIM, or HOME M.\KIS(! 



Iioiiic, as sii^K<'-'^l'''l '" ''"' tollowiii^ paragraph, its usefulness 
is limilcd by its small capacity and llic ainouiil of fuel thai it 
rc(Hiiii's. ( 'oiiimcicial outfits capaMc of accoiiiiiiodatiu^; coni- 
parativcly lar^ic (plant it ics with convenience are hiielly (hs- 
cussed in succee<Un^ paragraphs. 

A lionio-nuide hot-water canner may he const ructeil out of 
an\- ufensil thai is larjio enough to hold a numher of cans, that 




Fig. 124. — Commercial liot-wator ranninp; 
outfit for out-of-door work. 



is deep enouf2;h to allow the cans to l)e compK^telx' cov(M-od witii 
hoilinj!; water, and that is capalile of lieing fitted with a rack, 
or false bottom, to j)revent the cans from resting on the bottom 
of the receptacle, and to insure the free circulation of water 
in the boiler (Fijj;. 123). A tiuht-fittinfj; cover that will retain 
as much heat as possible will help to save fuel. A tin sap-l)ucl<et, 
a large tin oyster-pail, or a clothes boiler may be converted into 



■ FOOD PRESERVATION 

a hot-water canner to meet the requirements of the individual 
housekeeper. 

A number of simple hot-water outfits are now on the market. 
The main advantages that they have over those adapted at 
home from some other equipment are that they will hold more 
cans at one time, and that they have perforated trays, with 



Fig. 125. — Steam cooker. 

handles, on which a number of cans may be lowered into and 
lifted from the canner at one time. Such trays may and should 
be made for the home-made outfit. The commercial hot-water 
outfits are often equipped with a fire-box, which makes it pos- 
sible to use them outdoors if desired (Fig. 124). 



G04 .1 M.WCAL or HOME M.\Kl\(i 

The steam cooker (\''i\L,. \'l')} is li^ht in weight and is easily 
handled. Il is a hetler shape than the hoiler for use on a stovi; 
and is far nioic economical in the amount of fuel re(|uire<l. It 
may i)e used throughout the year, since it is aihipted for or- 
(hnary cooking as well as for camiinji;. Food that is canned in 
a steamei- retains its shape well. The; time of cookinjj as Kiven 
in the tiiii(-lal)le must be somewhat increased hecau.se the tem- 
I)erature is likely to he slightly lower than the hoilinji; point of 
water. Steamers are made in cojjper and in tin. 

The cover of the water-seal outfit is so devised that a seal of 
water holds it down tight, and thus the steam in the space 
above the cans is held under sli{i;ht pressure. The temperature 
of steam under pressure is above that of boilin<j; water. Hence 
with the water-.seal outfit the time needed for sterilization may 
be somewhat reduced. The efficiency of such an outfit depends 
on the amount of pressure produced. 

When steam is held under considerable pressure, temperatures 
much hio;her than that of boilinp; water may be obtained, aiul 
the rise in temperature is in direct proportion to the rise in 
pressure. A number of good portable canners in which a pres- 
sure from five to fifteen pounds may be olitained are now on the 
market. 

Steam-pn\ssure canners are the most successful for almost all 
kinds of vegetables and meats, because the greater heat ob- 
tained in them effects complete sterilization in a comparatively 
short time and during one cooking. Hence time, lal)or, and heat 
are saved. 

The equipment is the same as for hot-water outfits, with the 
addition of a steam gauge, a pet cock, and a thermometer. In 
some cases when canning is done in tin cans, a blast furnace is 
supplied, together with the soldering tools. Some outfits in- 
clude a boiler, a crate, a soklering outfit, and arrangements for 
a fire pot. 

There are many kinds of jars on the market. The best jar 
is one that is simple in construction, that can be sealed per- 
fectly and washed easily, that protects the contained food 
against contact with metals, that has the fewest parts to be lost 



FOOD PRESERVATION 605 

or misplaced, and that fits the shelves and receptacles planned 
to hold it. The glass should be clear with no bubbles, and the 
jar should be smooth both inside and outside. The color of the 
glass, whether white or green, has no effect on retaining the 
color of the food. The type of jar that seems to give most 




126.— Manner of Fig. 127.— Position Fig. 128.— Position 
testing a jar. of clamp during of clamp after 

sterilization. sterilization. 

general satisfaction is one with a wide mouth and straight sides 
and with a glass cover clamped on with some metal device. 

A glass jar should be tested before it is used (Fig. 126). The 
finger should be run around the edge of the jar as well as the lid 
where the rubber rests, to determine whether the glass is smooth. 
Filing may be necessary. 

A jar with a wire clamp should have the lid placed on it, and 
the lid should be tapped. If it rocks, the jar is imperfect. 
When the rubber is adjusted and the lid is placed on the jar, 
the wire clamp should snap on. It may be necessary to remove 
the bail and either to straighten it or to bend it more in order 



(•)()(•, t 1/ 1 A r \i. or HOME \i.\Ki\(; 

l(» tighten (»i- loosen llic lid as tlic case uuiy rcciuirc. BuIkiiij; 
of the iul)l)(M- may Ix? caused hy loo liKht a clanip. 

A mason jar may Ix* tested l)V placing; the lid on it without a 
ruhlter and attempting to insert the thumb nail hetween the 
Hd and tlie jar. If this can lie done, the jar is defective. An- 
other test is to adjust the ruhher and the lid and to pull out ihn 
rubber in one place. If the rubber staj's out, the jar is Kood; 
if it sprinjjs back, the jar is defective. 

The testinj; of any type of jar may be accomplishetl by filling 
the jar partly with boiling water, adjusting the cover and the 
rubber, and sealing and inverting the jar. If it leaks, it should 
be examined to determine whether the leakage is due to an 
imperfect jar, a poor rubber, or to imjiroper -adjustment of the 
wire clamp, in case a wire clamp is u.sed. If any defect noticed 
cannot be remedied, the jar should be reserved for pickles or 
some food that does not require sealing. 

New rubbers should be used each year. Old rubber loses its 
elasticity, and may cause imperfect sealing and thus endanger 
the keeping of the food. A good rubber is elastic, not brittle, 
and will not break easily when stretched. Care should be given 
to the selection of good rublx'rs, for eve!i new ones may be stiff, 
inelastic, and hard, or may contain no rul)lier at all. Some 
rubbers on the market impart so disagreeal)le a flavor and odor 
to the canned food that it must be discarded. Good rubbers 
are hard to procure, but nothing less than the best should be 
accepted. They are more expensive than poor rubbers, Init in 
the end the}^ cost less. 

Blanching. 

Blanching is an impoi-tant pi-eliminary st(^p in the cold-pack 
method of canning. It is used for some fruits and may be u.sed 
for all vegetables. Blanching ma\' be done with either boiling 
water or steam. 

When boiling water is used, the fruit or the vegetable is 
placed in a piece of cheese-cloth or a crate, lowered entirely 
under the water, and heated for the r{>(iuire(l nutnber of minutes 
(pages 012 to 614). Only a small quantity of the product 



- FOOD PRESERVATION 607 

should be blanched at a time in order that the water may be 
kept as near the boiling point as possible. 

Delicately flavored greens are generally blanched by steam 
in order to avoid the loss of iron and other nutrients that oc- 
curs when they are immersed in boiling water. For blanching 
in steam, the food is placed in some perforated utensil or a 
piece of cheese-cloth and suspended in a tightly closed steamer. 
The food should be blanched until no further shrinkage will 
occur. Blanching in steam generally requires a longer time 
than blanching in boiling water. The steam must penetrate 
to all parts of the mass, and for this reason the fruits or vege- 
tables should not be crowded together. Blanching in steam 
is not recommended for strong-flavored greens. 

Blanching may accomplish one or more results: (1) it helps 
to insure a close pack either by contracting the tissue and 
making the product flexible, as in the case of string beans 
and asparagus, or by causing a decided shrinkage, as with 
greens; (2) it may partly eliminate strong acids or bitter flavors; 
(3) it may set the color; (4) it begins the sterilization of the food; 
(5) it loosens the skins of certain fruits and vegetables from 
the pulp so that they may be slipped or scraped off easily, as 
in the case of peaches, tomatoes, or carrots. When blanching 
serves this last purpose, it is frequently called scalding. Blanch- 
ing may not be necessary but it is believed to give a superior 
product in many cases. 

The cold dip is the rapid chilling of the outside of the blanched 
fruit or vegetable by plunging it into cold water. While the 
food may need to be cold dipped in order to be cooled sufficiently 
to make it easily handled and to insure the cooling of the center 
of the mass, it should not be allowed to remain long in the 
cold water. 

Sirups. 

The thickness of sirup for canning fruits depends on the kind 
of fruit with which it is to be used and the richness of the 
product desired. 

In order to obtain three grades of sirup for ordinary use in 



OOcS .1 MAM.AL OF HOME MAKISC 

canninn. rupar and wator may he comhinofl in tlio following 
|)n)I)()r(i()iis and licalctl only until the su^ar is dissolved. The 
(luantity of watrr is kept constant in order to show the variation 
in the (lUantity of sujz;ar used. 

Thin sirup (al>ont a ^O-pcr-cont solution): 1-V( cups of su^ar 
and \ cups of wafer. This sirup nia>' he user! for such fruits a.s 
apples, pears, raspberries, and othei- sweel berries, when a rich 
pi'oduct is not desiicd. 

Medium siruj) (about a lO-pei-ceiit solution;: 2';^ cujis of 
supar and 4 cups of water. This sirup may be used for such 
fruits as sweet jilums, blackberries, and sweet cherries. 

Thick siru{) (about a oo-per-cent solution): 5 cups of sugar 
and 4 cups of water. This sirup may be used for such fruits 
as peaches, cherries, or pineapples when a sweet product is 
desired. 

A still thicker sirup may l)e desirable for rhubarl), goose- 
berries, currants, sour cherries, and other very sour fruits. 
Such a sirup may be made l)y boiling the thick sirup until it 
begins to spin a thread instead of using it when the sugar has 
just dissolved. 

Methods of canning. 

Two methods of canning are commonly used both in the 
household and in the canning factory, the open-kettle method 
and the cold-pack method. 

The open-kettle methotl is so called because the food to be 
canned is completely cooked in a kettle and then poured into 
the jar. Unless the jar, the cover, the rubber, and all 
utensils that come in contact with the food have been 
boiled for twenty minutes before the jars are filled, and unless 
the work is carefully done, there is alwaj^s the risk that the 
food will be reinfected and that it may spoil after the jar has 
been sealed. For some products, such as preserves, conserves, 
jams, and marmalades, for which condensation and heat more 
intense than that of boiling water are needed, the oj)en-kettle 
method must still be used. For beets, the open-kettle method 
is recommended, because the skins can be removed after the 



FOOD PRESERVATION 609 

cooking, and thus less color is lost. Many persons prefer the 
open-kettle method for canning strawberries and tomatoes. 

In the so called cold-pack method, the uncooked or partly 
cooked fruit, vegetable, or other food is packed in a can; the 
food is covered with some liquid, such as water, sirup, or juice; 
and both the jar and its contents are heated simultaneously 
in boiUng water or steam. This method may be used for most 
fruits and all vegetables. It is recommended for meats, be- 
cause it conserves the flavor and because meat may thus be 
canned under steam pressure. It is used by all canning fac- 
tories for simple canned vegetables, fruits, and meats. It is also 
being adopted gradually by housekeepers, since in general it is a 
safer, easier way of canning most foods than the old open-kettle 
method, and since the product keeps much of its natural flavor. 

Heat may be applied in the cold-pack method in one of two 
ways: 

1. Continuously, (a) The cans may be covered with boiling 
water and may be cooked continuously for a given length of 
time and sealed, (b) The cans may be placed in a pressure 
canner and cooked under steam pressure for a given length of 
time and sealed. 

2. Intermittently. The cans may be covered with boiling 
water and may be cooked for a stated length of time on each of 
three successive days, being sealed at the close of each period 
of heating. 

When food is cooked in the can for a given period on each of 
three successive days, the process is called intermittent heating. 

Acid or sweet foods may be canned safely by one period of 
heating. It is not always safe to can certain non-acid vege- 
tables by a single period unless steam pressure is used. They 
may keep if cooked long enough but there is always a risk. 
This is ]>ecause of the possible presence on them of resistant 
spores which are sometimes able to survive even twelve hours 
of continuous boiling. The intermittent method seems to 
be safer for these vegetables, but only the steam pressui'e 
method can be considered wholly safe. Many vegetables ac- 
cepted by the housekeeper as having kept are poor in both flavor 



CIO A MA MM. or !UtME MAKISC 

aiiil t)(l<ii\ ;ili(l t lii> IS (liir t(» >|)(iil;i^c. I'ood lli;i( lias kept should 
iKil lia\c cilliri- a Hat or a sour taste. 

JOxpcriiMiMits in cauMiuji; secni to iudicalo that, the or^;atiisiii 
known as botnliinis may not he dostroy(;d cither by ihe con- 
liiuious or the intermittent methods of canninfi; in liot water. 
\\'hen foods are canned at liome, unless the pressure cooker has 
heeii usctl, it is ur^ed that when tiic contents arc removed from 
tlie can they he boiled for several minutes before beiiifz; eaten. 
If, for example, beans are to he used as a salad, they should be 
boiled first and then cooled. Such a procedure makes for safety. 

For peas, beans, corn, asparagus, p;reens, pumpkin, and 
squash, the intermittent method of canning is strongly recom- 
mended, unless steam pressure is uschI. ]Many camie<l foods, 
even non-acid ones, may keep without intermittent heating 
if the time of boiling is long enough, but there seems to be 
no certainty about it. Variations in .soil, moisture, and climatic 
conditions from year to year may cause a failure one year 
when success has always before attended the onc^period process 
of cooking. Even with the thi-ee periods of heating, there is 
risk of spoilage, if the first period has not l)een long enough 
or if too long a tinu^ elapses between the first and second periods. 

The intermittent method is as follows: After a food is canned, 
boiled, and sealed, it is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours 
at room temperature. This gives time for spores to change 
to the vegetative form wliich they will do when wamith and 
food are supplied. The canned food is then cooked a second 
time in order to destroy the vegetative forms, and, still sealed, 
is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours at room temperature. 
Since all spores may not have changed during the first twenty- 
four hours, it is safer to allow a second twenty-four houi-s of 
standing and a third jieriod of cooking. 

The high temi)eratures or repeated heatings used in the 
canning of vegetables are not only troublesome and expensive, 
but often injurious to the flavor and texture. Experiments at 
the Universit}^ of California * have developed a very simple and 
certain way of sterilizing vegetables as easily as fruit. This con- 
* Cruess, W. V. C'iic. 158, Agr. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Calif. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 611 

sists in the addition of a little acid to the Hquid in which they 
are canned. It was found that peas heated to 212° F. in a brine 
acidified by the addition of 5 ounces of lemon juice to every 
gallon, kept perfectly, while peas heated in the same brine with- 
out lemon juice spoiled. The same results were obtained with 
beans, pumpkins, beets, turnips, artichokes, and asparagus. 
Large quantities of these vegetables are lost by "spoilage" in 
the commercial canneries. The flavor of the vegetables steril- 
ized at the low temperature was much superior to that of those 
sterilized under pressure. 

The common household practice of canning corn and tomatoes 
together owes its efficacy to the same principle. Corn alone is 
very difficult to sterilize, owing to its lack of acidity. This lack 
is supplied by the tomatoes and the mixture is easily preserved 
by ordinary heating. Doubtless other wholesome acids, such as 
vinegar, citric, or tartaric acid, could be used for the same pur- 
pose. The amount of acid used is small and improves rather 
than injures the flavor. 

The new method avoids both the expense of a pressure cooker 
and the trouble of repeated heatings, and can be highly rec- 
ommended at least for home use. It consists essentially of 
making the vegetables slightly acid, thus rendering them as 
easy to sterilize as fruits. Lemon juice or vinegar may be used 
to acidify brines. If ordinary cider vinegar is used, twice the 
amounts given for lemon juice are needed (page 615). 

Directions for canning fruit hij the cold-pack method. * 

(1) Select well-grown, firm, and not overripe fruit; (2) if possible, can 

fruit on the day that it is picked; (3) wash, pare, or otherwise prepare the 

fruit, removing all bruised or decayed parts; f (4) if there is much variation 

in size, grade the fruit so that the contents of each jar will be as nearly 

* The open-kettle method is preferred by many persons for canning 
fruits, especially strawberries, pineapples, and quinces. 

t Skins of peaches, plums, and pears may be removed by the following 
method. Bring 2 gallons of water to the boiling jioint. Add to it 1 pound 
of concentrated lye. Lower the fruit into the boiling solution in a wire 
basket or a thin cloth. Let it remain for from 20 to 30 seconds. Remove 
the fruit quickly, and immerse it in cold water. Then wash the peeling 
from the fruit. 



(ill.' .1 M.wi M. or ii<fMi: MM<f\(; 

uniform as j)()ssil)lc; {'i) if f<Ki(l is to he l)!aii<lic<l, hlaiidi or KcaM in boiling 
water a small (luantity at a lime (pa>^c 000), the number of minutes re- 
quired for blanrliinn bein^ piven in 'I'able LIII; do not blanch cherries, 
berries, or ])lums; (0) if blanched food is to be cooled, chill ihe outside of 
the blanched fruit by immersing it for a brir-f period in a iarne vessel of 
cold water (paj^e 007), and do not attempt to cool the fruit Ihoroujrhly by 
this cold dip; (7) jiac-k (he fniit firmly in clean, teste<l jars to within }/^ inch 
of the top; (S) fill the jars to within 3( inch of the (oj) with Ixiilinn sirup 
or hot wa(er (see directions for preparing sirups on pa^e 007); (9) place 
a new rubber on each jar, adjust the cover of the jar, and partly seal i(, 
and if usinfj; the hot-water bath, warm the cover before adjusfinR it; 
(10) sterilize tlie jars for the recjuired lenRth of time (Table LIII); if the 
hot-water bath is used, immerse the jars in sufficient bf)iIinK water to 
cover the tops to the depth of about 1 inch, and do not be^in to time the 
sterilizing until the water boils over the jars; keep the water boiling 
durinfj; the sterilizinp; period; (11) remove the jars from the sterilizer, seal 
them, and invert them to cool, avoiding a draft on the jars, but cooling 
them as rapidly as possible; (12) wiush the jars thoroughly, label them, 
and set them awaj', storing red fruits in a «lark place to prevent loss of 
color. 

Directions for canning vegetables by the cold-pack method. 

(1) Choose vegetables that are young and have made a quick growth. 
(2) Do not use very dirty vegetables. (3) Can vegetables as soon as pos- 
sible after they have been picked. This is particularly necessary with 
asparagus, peas, beans, and corn. (4) Clean the vegetables, and jirepare 
them as for cooking. (5) Grade the vegetables, if there is much variation 
in size, .so that the contents of each jar will be as nearly uniform in size 
as possible. (0) Do not attempt to handle too large a quantity of vegetables 
at once, especially in hot weather. The various steps in the canning process 
must be followetl in rapid succession to prevent loss of flavor from what 
commercial canners know as flat sour. (7) Blanch or scald the vegetables 
by plunging them into a large quantity of boiling water (page GOO). The 
blanching or scalding should be continued just long enough to make the 
vegetables sufficiently flexible to pack easily, or to loosen the skins sufl^- 
ciently to allow them to be quickly scraped off (Tables LIII to LV). Spin- 
ach and certain other delicately flavored greens .should be blanched in steam 
instead of in boiling water, until they are thoroughly shnmken. (S) Chill 
the outside of the vegetables by immersing them quickly in a large vessel 
of cold water. Do not attempt to cool the vegetables thoroughly bj-- this 
cold dip. This step may be omitted. (9) Pack the vegetables firmly in 
clean, tested jars to within }4 '"''h of the top. (10) Add ]/i\o\ teaspoonful 
of .salt to each pint jar. Home vegetables are improved by the addition of 
a .small amount of sugar as well. (11) Fill the jars with boiling water to 
within ' I inch of the (op. (12) Place a new nibber on each jar, ailjust the 



FOOD PRESERVATION 613 

cover, and partly seal it. Place the jars in a hot-water bath or a 
pressure cooker. (13) Sterilize the jars for the required length of time 
(Tables LXIII-LXV). Acid vegetables, such as tomatoes, may usually 
be successfully sterilized by the one-day, or continuous, method. It is 
recommended that peas, beans, corn, succotash, greens, asparagus, 
pumpkin, and squash be sterilized by the three-day, or intermittent, 
method, unless a steam pressure canner is used. If the hot-water 
bath is used, the boihng water should cover the tops of the jars to 
the depth of about 1 inch. Do not begin to time the sterilizing 
until the water boils over the jars. Keep the water boiling during the 
sterilizing period. (14) Remove the jars from the sterilizer, seal them, 
and invert them to cool. Avoid a draft on the jars, but cool them as 
quickly as possible, especially in canning peas, beans, corn, asparagus, and 
greens. (15) If the continuous method of sterilization has been used, the 
canning is now completed. Wash the jars, label them, and set them away. 
If the intermittent method is being used, let the cans stand for 24 hours 
at room temperature, and sterilize them for 1 hour on the second day. 
Remove the jars from the sterilizer, cool them, and let them stand for 
24 hours at room temperature. Sterilize them for 1 hour on the third day. 
It is safer to loosen the wire clamps each time before returning the jars 
to the hot-water bath. Cool the jars, wash them, label them, and set 
them away. Red vegetables should be stored in a dark place to prevent 
loss of color. 

Directions for canning meat by the cold-pack method. 

Continuous sterilization is necessary for meats canned by 
the cold-pack method. A fowl weighing 2 pounds when dressed 
should make a pint can of solid meat and a pint of stock thick 
enough to jelly. A fowl weighing 3 pounds should fill 13^ pint 
cans. 

(1) Select meat in perfect condition. Sterilizing will not render spoiled 
meat harmless. Tough cuts lend themselves well to canning. (2) Trim 
off dark-colored or strong-smelling portions, and surplus fat. Wipe the 
meat well with a damp cloth. Save the bones for soup stock. (3) Free 
the meat from bones, and cut it in pieces suitable for packing in the jars. 
Tough cuts of beef are sometimes passed through a meat-chopper before 
they are canned. (4) If additional flavor is desired, partly brown the meat 
in a heavy frying pan, using a small quantity of fat. (5) Pack the raw 
meat solidly into tested clean glass jars, filling them to within ^^ inch of 
the top. (6) Add J^ to 1 teaspoonful of salt for each pint of meat, and 
other seasoning, such as chopped onion, celery leaves, or bay leaf, if de- 
sired. Add no water. (7) Adjust the rubbers and the covers, and partly 
seal the jars. (8) Sterilize the jars in the pressure cooker. 



(il 1 



A MAM AL or HOME MAKISC 



lM)r soup slock ;ill hones and Iriiiiiniuns of flic cariiiod moats 
should l)c covcrc(| willi cold water, salted, and slowly simmered 
until the flesh drops in shreds from the hones, and the li(|uid, 
or stock, is concentrated. Seasoniufi;, such as onion and a hit 
of ceier\- leaf, m;i\- l)e adijed. The stock may he strained if de- 
sired, reheated, and hoiled for 10 minutes. It should then he 
poured into scalded jars, and sterilized for 1 hour on each of two 
successive daj's. 



T.VliLE LIII. — \ TiMi>T.\HLK FOR Cannin'o Fruits, Acid Vk(;ktables, 

AND MkATS nv TIIK SlNCLK, OR f'oNTINUOCS, PERIOD OF IlEATINn 



Food 



Apple cider 

Apples 

.Vpricot.s 

Blackberries, dcnvlxTri 

C'herrics 

Fruit juices 

C 1 rajjes 

Huckleberries 

Peaches 

Pears 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Quinces 

Raspberries 

Ilhubai-b 

Strawberries 

Sauerkraut 

Tomatoes 

Tomatoes and corn . . 

Tomato juice 

Meat 



Time of 
hloitclihtij 



Minutes 

1-2 
1-2 



1-2 
1-2 



1-2 



1-2 



1-2 



Time of rooking in jrint jars 



If the liot-walcr 
hath is u.s<(l 


// (he pnsHure 

cooker w used 

(5 pounds) 


Minut 


e.s 


Minutes 


20 




12 


20-30 


10 


10 




10 


1() 







10 




10 


20 




10 


16 




10 


10 




8 


10 




10 


20 




10 


00 




40 


10 




10 


00 




40 


10 




8 


10 




10 


10 




10 


120 




60 


22 




10 


90 




00 


20 




15 


300 




180 



FOOD PRESERVATION 



615 



TABLE LIV. — A Time-Table for Canning Vegetables by Three 
Periods op Heating, or the so-called Intermittent Method 



Food 


Time of 
blanching 


Time of cooking in pint jar f 


First day 


Second and third days 


Asparagus 

Beans 

* Beets 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Corn 

Parsnips 

Peas 


Minutes 
5 
5 

6-10 
6-10 
5 
5-10 

6-10 
5 

5 


Minutes 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60-75 

60 
60 
75 
75-90 

75 
60 


Minutes 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60-75 (depending on closeness 

of pack) 
60 
60 


Pumpkin 

Spinach and 
other greens 

Squash 

Succotash 


75 

75-90 (depending on closeness 

of pack) 
75 
60 



* A good method for canning beets is to cook them in the open kettle 
before they are pared until they are almost done, and then pare them and 
sterilize them for 1 hour in the jars. 

t For quart jars 10 to 15 minutes additional time should be allowed 
each day; for 2-quart jars 30 minutes should be added. 



(')l(i 



A MAMAL OF llOMr: MAKl.xa 



'IWIJLI^ \j\ . -A 'liMK-'I'.Mii.i; von C'annin*; \'k<;ktaiilks with thk 
Pkks.si;kk ("ooKKit <m iiv thk Sinckk Pkuiod <ik IIkatinc in thk 
Water Hath 





Time of 
blanching 


Time of cookiny in pint jars 


Fond 


When the hot water 
hath is used {a 
risky method for 
the vegc table s 
starred) 


When the pressure 
cooker i.i uned {the 
ortly really safe 
mcthofl) 

10 pounds 


♦Asparagus 

*Beans 


Minutes 
') 
') 

C. 10 
Ci 10 
.") 

5-10 
(MO 
') 

5 


Minutes 
180 {not advised) 
ISO {not adrised) 
120-180 
120-180 
180 

180 {not adriscd) 
ISO 

ISO {not adrised) 
200 

200 {not adrised) 

200 

ISO {fiot advised) 

300 


Minutes 
40 
30 


Beets 


40 


Carrots 


40 


Cauliflower 

*Corn 


40 
60 


Parsnips 

*Peas 


40 
30 


Pumpkin 

*Spinach aud 
other greens. . . 

Squash 

*Succotash 

Meat 


40 

40 
40 
40 
()0 







FOOD PRESERVATION 



617 



TABLE LVI. — Use of Acid in Canning Vegetables (Page 610) 







Period of 


Vegetable 


Proportion of acid 


sterilization 
at 212° F. 


Asparagus 


5 ounces lemon juice to 1 gallon brine f 


1 hour 


Green beans 


5 " " " " 1 " 


1 ]/2 hours 


Beets 


r (( <( tl 11 -1 (( <i 


1 }/2 hours 


Carrots 


A tt tl tt It 1 (( it 


1^ hours 


Sweet corn 


7 " " " " 1 " sirup, 
made of )4 pound sugar and 1 J^ 
ounce salt to the gallon, used to 






cover corn 


1 }/2 hours 




Equal quantity of tomatoes 


1 hour 


Peas 


7 ounces lemon juice to 1 gallon brine, 


1 hour 




made of 2-1/3 ounces salt and 3^^ 






ounces sugar to the gallon 




Pumpkin 


4 ounces lemon juice and 2-2/3 ounces 
salt to the gallon 


1 J^ hours 



* Data from Circ. 158, by W. V. Cruess, Agr. Exp. Sta., Univ. of Calif. 
t Two-per cent brine : about 6 tablespoons salt to 1 gallon water. 

Storing canned- foods. 

Canned food should be set aside for two or three days before 
being stored, and then as a means of special precaution, it 
should be tested as follows: Loosen the clamp and grasp the jar 
by the edges of the glass top. If the can leaks or if decomposi- 
tion has set in, the top will come off. If the top stays on, tighten 
the clamp again and the food is ready for storage. If the top 
comes off, reject that can of food. 

Red fruits and vegetables should be stored in a dark place, 
as light destroys the color, leaving the food unattractive in ap- 
pearance. If the jar and its contents have been made abso- 
lutely sterile, and the jar is entirely air-tight, the food will not 
spoil if held in a warm place. If spoiUng does occur, it will be 
due to one of the following causes: (1) some flaw in the can, 
which makes it a so-called "slow-leaker"; (2) the presence of 
some micro-organisms that have survived the cooking process, in 
spite of all care; (3) a drying-out of the rubber, and hence the 
breaking of the seal. 



CIS .1 M.WIM. OF lloMi: MM<1S(; 

In some f;i('l()ri('s wlicic foods arc caiiiicd in j^lass jai*s, racks 
are made for lioldiii^^ the jars upside down in an inclined i)osition, 
thus keeping; the licpiid constantly in tlii' top of the can and pre- 
\'cntinf:; llic lapid drxinji; of the ruMier. 

Score-cards for jiKlijiiKj fo(j(ls cdnncd in (jl/iss. 
The followinj^ score-card may be used when it is not feasible 
to open the jars: 

(Quality of fruit, judged by appearance (50) 

Uniformity of shape, size, ripeness 20 

Retention of shape, size 20 

Color 10 

Quality of liquid (40) 

Clearness 20 

Color 20 

Appearance of jar (10) 

( 'leanness 5 

Label: size, color, position, legend 5 

100 

The following score-card may be used when it is feasible to 
open the jars: 

Appearance of jar (10) 

Cleanness 5 

Label: size, color, position, legend 5 

Quality of fruit (GO) 

Uniformity of shape, size, ripeness 10 

Retention of shape and size, due to selection and proper cooking 10 

Color 5 

Flavor 20 

Texture: suitability of variety for canning, overripeness, under- 

ripeness, density of sirup . 15 

Quality of liquid (30) 

Flavor: richness, lack of fermentation 20 

Color 5 

Clearness 5 

100 



FOOD PRESERVATION 619 

Fruit juices. 

Properly extracted fruit juices contain much of the sugar 
and the body-building and body-regulating constituents of the 
whole fruit, as well as much of its flavor and its pectin (jelly- 
making substance). Hence fruit juices have a real food value. 
They also furnish an easy and often inexpensive means of 
variety in the daily meals, in both warm and cold weather. 
Fruit drinks (page 471), jellied desserts, pudding sauces, ice 
creams, and ices are easily made from bottled fruit juices, which 
may often be extracted from parts of the fruits that would other- 
wise be discarded. Juices from pineapples, rhubarb, straw- 
berries, blackberries, raspberries, blueberries, currants, cherries, 
peaches, plums, apples, pears, quinces, grapes (red, white, and 
black), are especially good for these purposes. 

Juice may be extracted from discarded parts of fruit; from 
left-over portions of fruit prepared for the table; from skins 
and pits of peaches; from skins, cores, and seeds of apples; from 
pulp discarded after making jelly and marmalade; from well- 
scrubbed skins of oranges and lemons used in making lemon- 
ade; from cores, skins, and eyes of well-scrubbed pineapples. 

The following procedure may then be carried out: 

Cover the pulp or parings with cold water, bring the mixture 
slowly to the boiling point, simmer it until the juice is extracted 
(15 or 20 minutes), and strain it. Boil the strained juice for 
5 minutes, and pour it into jars or glass bottles that have been 
sterilized by boiling for 20 minutes, filling the jars to over- 
flowing. Seal the jars immediately. Stopper the bottles with 
corks sterilized and dried for shrinkage, and make an air-tight 
seal by dipping the cork and the lip of the bottle into hot paraf- 
fin. If desired, add 1 cupful of sugar for each 6 cupfuls of fruit 
juice before boiling the juice. In this case, be sure to note on 
the label the proportion of sugar used. 

A rich clear juice may be obtained by allowing well- washed 
juicy fruits to stand overnight with alternate layers of sugar. 
If enough sugar is added the next morning (a little more than 
pound for pound) the strained juice may be sealed, without 
cooking, in sterilized bottles, stoppered with sterilized corks. 



(V2i) A MAM AL <H' lloME MAKISU 

The tnakiiKj <>f jdh/.* 

( "iiiraiits, sour apples, cialj-applcs, rasphorrios, I ) lack berries, 
bluclK'nics, i)arlly ripened f^rapes, and (piinces make f^ood 
jelly; hut peaches, jjcars, strawherries, and cherries are de- 
ficient in certain substances necessary to produce a jelly of good 
consistency and flavor. This deficiency may be overcome, 
by coml)ininK these juices with those that make good jelly. 

A fruit juice that is ^[ood for making jelly is one that contains 
pectin, the essential jelly-makinff suljstance. Juice.s extracted 
by cooking are apparentl}^ far richer in this substance than 
juices extracted from the raw fruits. To determine whether 
a juice contains pectin, 1 or 2 tal)lespoonfuls of the hot juice 
should be mixed thoroughly with an equal volume of grain 
alcohol (90 to 95 per cent), and the mixture should be cooled. 
If pectin is present, a gelatinous mass, which can be gathered 
on a spoon, will appear in the liquid. 

Acid is anotlicr requisite for juices that make good jelly. 

To extract juice from a ver}' juicy fruit, such as currants or 
raspberries, place the clean fruit, washed if necessary, in an 
enameled preserving kettle, add just enough water to prevent 
burning — perhaps 1 cup to 4 or 5 quarts of fruit — cover the 
kettle, and i)lace it where the fruit will cook rather slowly, 
stirring it occasionall}' with a wooden or a silver spoon. When 
the simmering point is reached, crush the fruit further with a 
well-soaked wooden masher, and continue heating it until the 
whole mass is cooked through. Allow the juice to drain through 
a jelly bag or a double j)iece of cheese-cloth into an earthen- 
ware or enameled receptacle for half an hour or more. It is 
better not to combine the first extraction with the later. If 
later extractions are to be made, it is well to reserve a pectin 
test of first extraction as a standard for concentrating ones later. 

When the first extraction is fairly well drained out, generally 
within half an hour, transfer the pulp to the preserving kettle, 
cover it with water, stir it well, and cover the kettle. Bring 
the juice slowly to the boiling point, and simmer it for 15 or 20 

* Condonsod from Principles of Jell}' Making, bv X. E. Goldthwaite, 
Univ. of 111., Bull. 15. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 621 

minutes. Strain it through a jelly bag as for the first extraction. 
If the alcohol test indicates much pectin, make a third extrac- 
tion. Generally only three extractions can be made, but some 
fruits will allow five. The second and later extractions may be 
combined. The boiling juice may be sealed in sterilized bottles 
and made into jelly in the winter. 

If a less juicy fruit, such as apples or quinces, is used, wash 
the fruit, discard any unsound parts, cut it into small pieces, 
including the skins and the seeds, cover it with water, and ex- 
tract the juice according to the directions for juicy fruits, mak- 
ing more than one extraction if possible. 

For currants and partly ripened grapes, the correct propor- 
tion of sugar for the first extraction is likely to be equal volumes 
of sugar and juice. For red raspberries, blueberries, and black- 
berries, and for fruits to which much water must be added, 
such as sour apples, crab-apples, and cranberries, the correct 
proportion by volume for the first extraction is likely to be 
three-fourths as much sugar as juice. The quantity of sugar 
required is determined by the quantity of pectin present in 
the juice. If too little sugar in proportion to pectin is used, the 
jelly is likely to be tough; if too much sugar is used, the jelly 
is soft and does not hold its shape. The remedy for having 
used too much sugar is to add more juice and thus supply more 
pectin. It is better to err on the side of too little rather than 
too much sugar. The second and third extractions may be 
mixed. The mixture should be boiled down until the juice 
approximates in pectin-content the richness of the first ex- 
traction, as shown by the pectin test. The juice should then 
be measured, and the sugar should be added in the proportion 
suggested for the first extraction. 

The proportion of sugar to juice, the proportion of pectin 
in the juice, and possibly the proportion of acid in the juice, 
govern the length of time for boiling the juice to produce good 
jelly. Boiling from 8 to 10 minutes may be sufficient for currant 
juice, while from 20 to 30 minutes may be required for juice 
from raspberries, blackberries, apples, and the like. The juice 
in any case should be boiled rapidly. 



ti'i'J .1 .l/.l.\/.l/. or lluMi: MAK/.\(; 

Tlic siiji;;ir should he added to the juice wlicu tlie i)criod of 
hoiliuK is about half completod. If the suji;ar is hot, the cooking; 
process is not delayed. Care should he taken not to scorch 
the sup;ar, however. The juice should he stirred fairly con- 
stantly, after the su{i;ar is added, in order to prevent hurriinti. 

A iiood jelly te.st is to allow juice to drop from the side of a 
spoon and when it sheets off, or breaks off, to stop the cooking. 

If jellies are to stand any lenj^th of time l)efore usiuK, they 
should be sealed properly from the air. After the fj;la,s.ses have 
been filled completely with the hot jellies, they should be set 
in a cool place for the contents to harden. Jellies slightly under- 
cooked may be covered with panes of fi;lass and allowed to 
harden in the sun. In either case, when the jellies are well set, 
the ff lasses should be filled with hot paraffin — the jelly will have 
shrunken, leaving space for this — not merely melted paraffin, 
l)ut hot paraffin so that all germs that may have fallen on the 
surface of the jelly may be killed and future trouble with them 
obviated. The glasses should be closed with hot, clean tin 
covers, and kept in a dry, cool place. 

Jams. 

The method of making jams is to cook the fruit until tender, 
add sugar in the proportion of equal quantities or three-fourths 
as much as fruit, and cook the mixture imtil a drop will jelly 
on a cold dish. It should then be poured into sterihzed jars 
and sealed. 

PKESEKVATION OF MEAT * 

Directions for canning meat are given on page 613. 

Keeping fresh meat 
All meat to be preserved, eitiier fresh or cured, should be 
thoroughl}' cooled after the animal is slaughtered, for unless 
this is done the meat will not cure well nor will it be possible to 
keep it in a fresh state for any length of time. 

* Soiilko, K. .T. The Curinfj; of Moat and Meat Products on tho Farm, 
Cornell llcaiUng-Cour.se for the Farm, Bull. 110. 



■ FOOD PRESERVATION 623 

In cold weather meat may be kept by hanging it in a dark, 
cool place, where dogs, cats, and rodents cannot reach it. If a 
temperature below 40° F. is maintained, meat may be kept for 
weeks; but with the temperature alternating between low and 
high, it will not keep well. Meat that is frozen will keep in- 
definitely so long as it remains frozen. Alternate freezing and 
thawing will spoil the flavor and cause early decomposition. 
It is important that the meat be kept in a place where the air is 
dry. A dark, cool cellar, or an attic that is dry and free from 
odors, is the proper place for keeping meat on the farm. 

Meat packed in snow may ])e kept for a considerable length 
of time. The meat should first be frozen hard. After it is 
frozen, an earthen jar or a barrel should be provided, and a 
thick layer of snow should be tamped tightly in the bottom of 
this. On the snow a layer of meat is packed, and covered with 
another layer of snow. Care must be taken to have a thick 
layer of snow between the meat and the inner surface of the 
receptacle. Another layer of meat is then put on, and another 
layer of snow, and so on until all the meat is packed or the jar is 
almost full, when a heavy covering of snow should be put on 
top and covered with a block or some other object in order to 
keep out rats and mice. The meat may be taken out as needed, 
and the snow should be repacked on top each time. 

Another method commonly used with pork and sausage is 
partly to cook the meat by frying it on both sides, pack it in a 
jar, and pour hot lard over it in order to seal the whole and keep 
out air. The meat may be taken out as needed. Care should 
be taken each time to melt the lard that is taken off, and to pour 
it back. 

Curing meats 

As has already been stated, meat should be thoroughly cooled 
before it is cured. It is equally important, however, that the 
meat shall not be in a frozen condition, for if it is frozen the 
brine or pickling solution cannot penetrate freely and the meat 
will not be of even flavor throughout. 

The vessels used for curing meats are of various sorts and 



024 .1 M.WCM. OF HOME MAKISa 

sizes, tlt'iKMidiiiff oil llu' aiiiounl of incut (o Ik- curod and the 
fxpciiso to wliich tho owner cares to ro. Lar^e eartlien jars 
or crocks p;ive the best results, hut these are somewhat exix'ii- 
sive — 8 to 10 cents a gallon of capacity- — ^aiid they are very 
easily hroken if not carefully handled. Tiglit hardwocKl barrels 
may l)e used. New barrels or barrels that have containe(l 
molasses should be used, never vineK^ir or kero.sene barrels un- 
less they have been burned out on the inside. If niola.s.se.s 
barrels are used they should be thorouffjily scalded. 

The principal preservatives u.sed are salt, sugar, and molasses, 
and their combinations. (Chemicals forbidden by law and tho.se 
known to have a bad cfTect on health should not be used. Salt 
preserves meat through its astringent and slightly germicidal 
action. It hardens the muscle filjers and draws the moisture 
from the meat. Sugar and mola.sses have an almost opposite 
effect. They cause the retention of the moisture of the meat, 
and keep the muscle fibers soft and tender. Therefore, .salt and 
sugar are commonly used together, as the sugar gives a desir- 
able flavor and prevents the hardening action of the salt. Salt- 
peter is often used to retain the natural reddish color of the 
meat. It is detrimental to health and should be used sparingly 
if at all. 

Curing pork. 

SUG.Ml-CURED HAMS, BACONS, AXD TONGUES 

Method I. After the meat ha.s been thoroughly cooled, the carcass may 
be cut up and cured. Sugar-cured pork is preferable to dry-cured or plain 
salt pork because of its plea-sant flavor and because the meat is not .«o dry 
and hard. Beef tongues may be cured in the same jiickle with the pork. 
All the pork carca.ss may be cured excei)t the loins, which are used fresh 
for chops and roasts, the sjiare-ribs, which are used fresh, and the trim- 
mings, which are u.scd for lard and sausage. The hams, shoulders, and 
bacons are sugar-cured, and the fat backs arc dry-cured or pickled in a 
plain salt pickle. 

Before the meat is placed in pickle or salt, all corners and ragged edges 
should be cut off and used for sausage and lard. If they are left on they 
\y'\\[ be wasted, for they will be thoroughly soaked by the pickle and will 
be of no use. 

Rub the pork thoroughly with salt and pack it in a cool place overnight. 
The next day pack it in a barrel or an earthen jar, with the heaviest hams 



FOOD PRESERVATION 625 

and shoulders at the bottom, the lighter hams and" shoulders next, and the 
bacons and tongues at the top. 

For every 100 pounds of meat weigh out 10 pounds of salt, 2^^ pounds 
of brown sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Rub these together thoroughly, 
taking care that the saltpeter is finely powdered. Dissolve the whole by 
stirring it into 4 gallons of boiling water. Allow this brine to cool thor- 
oughly, and then pour it over the meat. If it does not entirely cover the 
meat, add more water. The brine should cover the meat at all times. 
The meat may be weighted down with a block if necessary, for if it is 
not covered the projecting meat will decompose in a short time. 

If the brine shows signs of fermenting during the curing process, it 
should be drawn off, boiled, and cooled, and then poured back on the 
meat. 

The bacons and tongues may be taken from the pickle after four to six 
weeks, and after being washed in warm water they may be hung in the 
smoke-house and smoked. The lighter hams and shoulders will be ready 
to take out of the pickle in six to eight weeks, and the heavier ones at the 
end of the eighth week. 

Method II. Another recipe for sugar-cured hams, bacons, and tongues 
that has given good results is as follows: 

Pack the thoroughly cooled meat in a cool, dry place, on a table that 
has previously been covered with a layer of salt. Sprinkle salt over each 
piece of meat, and add alternate layers of meat and layers of salt until all 
is packed. 

Allow the meat to remain in the salt for eight to ten days, and then 
wash off the salt with lukewann water. The meat is now ready to go 
into the pickle, which is mixed as follows: To 18 gallons of water add 5 
pounds of brown sugar, a small handful of saltpeter, and 1 tablespoonful 
of ginger. Stir the mixture until the solids are all dissolved, and then stir 
in 12 pounds of salt. Stir until all the salt is dissolved. This amount 
can be increased or decreased according to the amount of meat to be 
pickled. Ordinarily one-fourth of this mixture will be enough for 100 
pounds of pork. 

The pickle should test 75° with the hydrometer test. If a hydrometer 
is not at hand, drop a fresh egg into the pickle; if the egg floats almost 
submerged, the brine is of the proper strength. 

Pack the meat in a barrel or a jar, with hams and shoulders weighing 
over 10 pounds on the bottom, those weighing less than 10 pounds next, 
and the bacon strips and tongues on top. Pour the brine over the meat 
so that it is all covered, and weight it with a block so that none of the 
meat projects from the brine. 

The bacons and tongues may be removed from the brine at the end of 
three weeks, the Hghter hams and -shoulders at the end of five weeks, and 
the heaviest ones after six to seven weeks. After the meat is removed 
from the brine, it should be washed in warm water in order to remove the 



626 A MAXVAL OF JIOME-MAKISC 

crust (if liriiic :iiul any ■^ciiin iliat may liavc formcil, ami after dryinn for 
ai> lioiir or more it may he \\\\\\\i, in tlic smoke-hdusf and sriioktHl. 

HKINK SALT I'f)ltK 

I'a<k lluMdiijilily (•.(xdcil pork in a barrel or a jar after having ruhhe I 
each piece with salt. The foUowinj; day weinh out for each UK) i>ouiids 
of meat 10 pounds of salt and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Mix llicsse, and 
di.s.solvc tiie mixture in 4 nallons of hoilinj; water. .Mlow this brine to 
oool thorouglily, and tlien i)our it over the meat in the barrel. Place a 
block on top in order to keep the meat submer{;e<l. 

Fat backs are ordinarily used for .salt pork cured in brine, but any j)art 
of the carcass may be cured in thi.s waj'. The meat cures best when cut 
in strips or in (>-inch square^s. 

The meat should be left in the brine and be taken out as needed. 

DUV-CUKKD PORK 

To dry-cure meat involves more work than lo brine-cure if, although 
it is a little less expensive in some cases. It is less difficult merely to 
salt the meat, pack in a jar, and pour the brine over it, than to rub the 
meat several times with the dry mixture. ALsf), the brine-cured meat 
is not so dry and is a little more palatable. Brine-cured meat can be 
kept anyAvhere as lon|; as it is kept cool; dry-cured meat, on the other 
hand, should be kept in a cool, moist place, in order to insure even curing. 
With l)rine-cured meat there is no danger from rats and other vennin; 
but flies must be kept away from meat cured in either way. 

In dry-curing jiork, weigh out for every 100 pounds of pork G pounds 
of salt, 2J4 IhhukIs of granulated sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter, and 
mix thoroughly. Divide the mixture into three portions. Rub one {)ortion 
on the meat the first day, and pack the meat in a barrel. Leave it for 
three days. At the end of three days take the meat out of the barrel, 
rub it with a second jjortion of the mixture, and repack it. Three days 
later rub the meat with the third and last portion of the mixture, and 
repack it. Let it stay in the barrel for ten to fourteen days. Then remove 
it, w:usli it in warm water, and smoke it. 

PICKLED pigs' feet 

Take well-scraped pigs' feet, with the toes removefl, and soak them 
in cold water overnight. The next morning jjut them in a kettle, 
add enough water to cover them, and let them cook until st)ft. This 
will require about five hours. Salt should be adtled to the water dur- 
ing the cooking. When the pigs' feet are soft, remove Ihcm from the 
water, spUt them, pack them in an earthen jar, and pour hot vinegar 
over them. Spices of various kinds may be added to the vinegar if 
desired. 



FOOD PRESERVATION 027 

HEAD-CHEESE 

Head-cheese is made from the part of the head of the hog that would 
otherwise be wasted. When properly prepared it is a deUcacy. The 
feet, as well as the head, may be used for this purpose. 

Skin the hog's head, remove the eyes and the brain, and split the head 
through the midhne, or down the center of the forehead and the nose. 
Usually the jowls are removed and salted. Put the head pieces into a 
cooker, add enough water to cover the meat, and boil the whole until 
the meat parts come readily from the bone. Remove the meat, separate 
it from the bones, and chop it finely. Remove the liquid from the kettle 
and save it for further use. After the meat is chopped, return it to the 
kettle, pour on enough of the liquid to cover the meat, and allow it to 
cook for ten or fifteen minutes. While this final cooking is taking place, 
season the mixture with salt and pepper to suit the taste. 

Put the cooked meat and the liquid that remains into jars, pans, or 
a cold-meat press, place a weight on top, and allow the meat to cool. 
It will then be solid and can be sliced and eaten immediately. 



Lard is made from the fat of the hog carcass. Three grades of lard 
are obtained from three parts of the body: the best grade, leaf lard, is 
made from the leaf, or layer of fat lying inside the abdominal wall; the 
second grade is made from the backs, the sides, and the pieces trimmed 
from the various cuts; the third and poorest grade is made from the in- 
testinal, stomach, and pluck fats. The last is much stronger than the 
other two and should not be mixed with them. On the farm the first 
two grades are usually made together, and sometimes all three are made 
together. 

Cut the fat into bits about 1 inch square, and trim out all particles 
of meat as they give an unpleasant burned flavor to the lard and are 
the first to scorch if the kettle becomes too hot. Put the pieces of fat 
into a kettle, and add a little water, not more than a quart, to keep the 
fat from burning until some of the lard has melted. 

Keep the kettle hot until the cracklings are brown and rise to the top. 
Skim off the cracklings, and press out the lard that remains in them. 
Draw off the melted lard, and add a little baking-soda to help whiten 
it. The lard should be stirred while it is cooling, in order to make it as 
white as possible. 

Curing heef. 

Beef is not so commonly cured as pork; but when corned it 
takes the place of fresh beef during periods of the year when 
fresh beef does not keep well, and also offers a method of pre- 
serving part of the meat until it is needed and thus saving a 



028 .1 MAM AL or HOME MAKISC 

waste or loss of meat, since it is impossible for one family to 
use an entire beef carcass in the fresh state. Drie<l heef com- 
mands a hi^h price on the market. It also ofTei-s a m(;tho(l of 
pres(>rvinji; meat for future use. Jerked heef is made in the dri«'r 
regions of the West. The climate of the eastern states is not 
dry enough nor warm enoujih 1o cure it successfully, and it is 
not so palatable as dried heef. 



CORNED DEEP 

Mctlioil I. Siiico cornod hocf is used for practically the .same (ILshes 
as fresh b('(>f, only wholesome untainted meat should be use<l for this 
))uri)ose. Naturally, the choicer tlie meat, that is put into the pickle, 
the better will be the meat that comes out. The cheai)er cuts of beef 
are ordinarily used for corninf>;, because the choicer cuts are more palatable 
in a fresh condition. Plate, flank, shouMer, chuck, cro.ss ribs, and rump 
are most commonly used for corning. 

Frozen meat should not be put into the brine; neither .should the brine 
be frozen while the meat is in it. 

Weigh the meat. Cut it in pieces about 6 inches square. Place a 
layer of salt on the bottom of the ve.ssel in which the meat is to be packed, 
cover this with a layer of meat, and sprinkle a layer of salt over the meat. 
Add .alternate layers of meat and of salt until the meat is packed. Seven 
to 9 pounds of salt will usually be enough for 100 pounds of meat. Allow 
the meat to stand in the salt overnight. On the following morning make 
a brine, using 5 pounds of sugar, 2j^ ounces of baking-.socla, and 3 ounces 
of saltpeter for every 100 pounds of meat. Dissolve these ingredients in 
4 gallons of boiling water. Allow the brine to cool thoroughly before 
pouring it over the meat. If more or less than 100 pounds of meat i.s 
to be cured, use these proportions for the brine. If 4 gallons of brine does 
not entirely cover 100 pounds of meat, water maj^ be added. The meat 
should be weighterl down with a block or a clean stone, since any part 
that is not covered with the brine will decompose very quickly. 

If the brine shows signs of fermentation in warm weather, it should be 
drawn off, boileil, strained through a clean cloth, and, after it is thoroughly 
cooled, poured back on the meat. 

The meat should be kept in a cool, dark i)lace. At the end of thirty 
days the meat will be ready for use. If the pieces are larger than G inches 
square, a longer time may be allowed, according to the size of the pieces. 

Method II. The formula given under Method II (page t)2")) for .sugar- 
(■ured hams and bacons may b(» use<l for corned beef also. 

Pre.ss(^(l corned beef. After the corned beef, prepared jus described 
above, hits been in the pickle for the recjuired length of time, it may be 
taken out, and, after the brine is washed olT, may be used in the .san>e 



. FOOD PRESERVATION 629 

way as fresh beef. If desired, it may be made into pressed corned beef. 
This is prepared as follows: Remove the beef from the pickhng solution, 
wash it with warm water, and place it in a kettle. Keep it barely covered 
with water at all times, and boil it for two hours. Salt and pepper may. be 
added while the meat is cooking, but usually there is enough salt in the 
meat from the brine. Take the meat from the kettle and pack it in pans 
or in a cold-meat press. Strain the broth through cheese-cloth or muslin 
several times, replace it on the stove, boil it down to one-half its original 
volume, pour it over the meat in the pans, and allow the whole to harden 
in a cool place. After the meat has hardened it may be sliced and eaten 
without further preparation. 

DRIED BEEF 

Dried beef is usually made from the round, although any heavily muscled 
part may be used for this purpose. The inside of the round makes the 
tenderest meat. In cutting meat for dried beef, the muscles should be 
separated into their natural divisions. When cured and smoked in this 
way they can be sliced across the grain, and the meat is much tenderer 
than would otherwise be the case. 

A jar or a barrel is the best receptacle in which to pack the meat when 
curing it. To each 100 pounds of well-cooled beef weigh out 6 pounds of 
fine salt, 3 pounds of granulated or brown sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. 
Mix these thoroughly, without wetting, and divide the mixture into three 
portions. Set two portions away for future use, and rub the other portion 
into the meat. Pack the meat in the jar and leave it for three days. At 
the end of the three days take the meat from the jar, but leave in the 
jar the sirup that has formed. Rub the meat with another portion of the 
mixture, repack it, and leave it for three days. Remove it from the sirup, 
rub it with the last portion of the mixture, and repack it in the sirup in 
the jar. After three days remove the meat and hang it in the smoke-house, 
where it should be smoked until it is dry. It should then be kept in a 
dry place until it is used. The longer it is smoked and the drier it is kept, 
the longer it will remain good. 

PICKLED BEEF TONGUES 

The recipe given on page 625 for sugar-cured hams and bacons may be 
used also for pickling beef tongues. 

Curing mutton and lamb. 

Mutton and lamb are seldom, if ever cured on the farm. In 
the larger packing houses, mutton is sometimes partly cured in 
a plain salt pickle, and then cooked and packed in cans, which 
are soldered shut while the meat is still hot. 



iVM) A MAXIAL OF HOME MAKISG 

SaiVidijcs. 

Very p;o<)(l s;iusaj:;('s can Itc made from the scraps that would 
otherwise he wastrd in tlic Itutclier shop and on the farm. Such 
pieces MS checks, Irimmiiiffs, jowls, pork hearts and tongues, 
mutton hearts ami t(inji;ues, and many other scraps that are 
seklom used ficsli, will make a very palatable sausage and will 
serve for this jjurpose as well as any other meat. 

IIAMIILIUJ STEAK 

This is the simplest fomi of sausage made, and consists simply of fresh 
beef run twice ihrou^h a grinder. It may be seasoned after the first grimi- 
ing, or left unseasoned. It is never stulTed into casings. Any part of the 
beef carctiss may be used for hamburg steak, but the best quaUty is made 
from the round. 

MIXED SAUS.VGE 

This is made by mixing beef and pork in such proportions as to suit 
the tiuste of the consumer. This kind of sausage is usually made if the 
consumer dislikes the extremely fat undiluted {xjrk .sau.sage. It is .seldom 
stuffed into casings, but is usualh^ left loose and made into pats when 
fried. The following j)roi)ortions of beef and pork give excellent results: 
2 parts lean pork; 3 i)arts lean beef; 1 part fat pork. 

POIiK SAUSAGE 

Pork sausage should be made from clean, fresh pork scraps, or the 
cheaper i)arts of the meat." The meat should be in the proportion of 
three jiarts of lean pork to one of fat pork. This should be run through 
the grinder, spread out and seasoned with .salt, pepper, and .sage, and 
reground. ILsually 1 J^ ounces of fine .salt, J^ ounce of ground black pepper, 
and 14 ounce or less of ground sage, for 6 i)oumls of meat, makes a .satis- 
factory seiusoning. 

Pork sausage cither is use<l loo.se, being made into pats and fried, or 
is stuffed into pork casings and ilouble-linked. If left loose it can be 
packed in jars until used. If it is to be kept for a long period, it may 
be run into ckjth bags and smoked for a .short time. The linked sausage 
may also be smoked for a short time in order to preserve it. If it is to be 
kept until summer, it may be partially cooked, packed in a jar, and cov- 
ered with hot lard. 

SmoJdng meats on the farm 
The smoking of cured meats aids in their preservation because 
the smoking process closes the pores of the meat or casings, and 
the creosote is oJjjectionaljle to some insects. 



. FOOD PRESERVATION 631 

Smoking gives a desirable flavor to the meat if the proper 
kind of fuel is used. Green hickory is best, but other hard- 
woods or corn-cobs may be used if hickory is not available. 
Resinous woods should never be used, as they give an objection- 
able flavor to the meat. Corn-cobs are commonly used, but 
are not so satisfactory as hickory because of the fine ash that 
is forced upward by the heat and settles on the meat, giving it a 
dirty appearance. Juniper berries and fragrant woods are some- 
times added to the fire, to give desired flavors. 

Proprietary smoking preparations are not to be recommended, 
as a whole, because they hasten the curing process and do not 
give as desirable a flavor as does the ordinary smoking process. 
Some of these preparations also contain substances that cause 
digestive disorders when the meat is eaten. This is especially 
true of the various dips used to take the place of smoking. 

The smoke-house. 

The smoke-house may be of any size or construction, to suit 
the needs of the owner. If the house is to be used only once and 
only a small amount of meat is to be smoked, a large barrel 
or a dry goods box may be used. If the house is to be perma- 
nent, it is often worth while to build it of brick, concrete, or 
stone, in order to avoid all risk of loss by fire. A frame house 
may be used, provided that care is taken to confine the fire to 
the center of the floor, or to build it in a large iron kettle, so 
that it will not spread to the house. The safest method of 
smoking meat, and at the same time of preventing the smoke- 
house from getting too hot, is to dig a small furnace pit in the 
ground about 10 or 12 feet from the smoke-house, and have the 
smoke carried from this to the house through a galvanized pipe 
laid on top of the ground and covered so that it will not be 
crushed. 

The method of construction of the smoke-house should allow 
ample ventilation, and there should be some means of regulating 
the draft. This can be done by having the outlet for the smoke 
under the eaves and the intake for the air at the furnace, if this 
is used; or, if the furnace or outdoor fire method is not used, 



(i.T2 .1 MAMAI. OF HOME \1.\KIS(! 

:iii .idjuslaltlc air iiilakc may Ik' attached to the door and fov- 
crcd with a heavy screen to keep out Hies and lats. 

I'\)r onhnary farm use, the house should he ahout S feet 
square and S to 10 feet hiKl't !^'> tl'nl the meat will han^ to 7 
feet ai)ove the fire and near enough to the roof to ^et the benefit 
of the thick smoke and yet be below the level of the ventilator. 

Thf tiinul:i/i(j process. 

Moat that has been pickled shouM be r('move<l from the 
brine at least a day i)efore it is to be smoked, and after bein;; 
waslu^l in warm water it should be hunji; up to dry until it is 
ready to smoke. The meat should be hung in the smoke-hou.se, 
with no two pieces touching each other, and then a fire should 
be started, heating the house gradually. The meat should be 
kept warm, but not hot enough to dry the outside too much and 
prevent the smoke from penetrating. There should be as mucii 
smoke as possible, but no more heat than is necessary. 

In winter the fire should be kept l)urning constantly until the 
smoking is completed, for if the meat is allowed to cool too 
much the smoke will not penetrate it. Meat that has l)een 
frozen should not be put into the smoke-house until it is thawed. 

In warm w^eather there is danger of getting the meat too hot, 
and for this reason it is good practice to let the fire die down 
every other da\' until the meat has become properh' smoked. 

After the meat has become properly colored, it should l)e 
cooled (but not allowed to freeze) by opening the ventilator on 
the door, leaving it open until the meat hardens. It mav then 
be pack(Hl away for future use. If warm hams are piled one 
upon another l)efore they are cooled, sweating occurs where the 
two touch, and decomposition soon sets in. 

The meat may be kept in the smoke-house for a time if the 
weather is not too warm, but the house should be kept free from 
flies. 

If the smoked meat is to l)e used immediately, no further 
care is needed; but if it is to be held until summer it should be 
wrapped in clean, white paper, and a covering of muslin sewed 
on to protect it from insects. It should be kept where it will 



' FOOD PRESERVATION 633 

not be subject to extreme change of temperature or to damp- 
ness. 

If the meat is to be kept for a considerable length of time and 
absolute safe-keeping is desired, the following directions,* should 
be followed : "For absolute safe-keeping for an indefinite period 
of time, it is essential that the meat be thoroughly cured. After 
it is smoked and has become dry on the surface it should be 
wrapped in parchment paper; or old newspapers will do where 
parchment cannot be had. Then inclose in heavy muslin or 
canvas, and cover with yellow wash or ordinary lime white- 
wash, glue being added. Hang each piece out so that it does 
not come in contact with other pieces. Do not stack in piles. 

"Recipe for yellow wash.— For 100 pounds hams or bacon 
take: 3 pounds barytes (barium sulphate; 0.06 pound glue; 
0.08 pound chrome yellow (lead chromate) ; 0.40 pound flour. 

" Half fill a pail with water and mix in the flour, dissolving 
all lumps thoroughly. Dissolve the chrome in a quart of water 
in a separate vessel and add the solution and the glue to the 
flour; bring the whole to a boil and add the barytes slowly, 
stirring constantly. Make the wash the day before it is re- 
quired. Stir it frequently when using, and apply with a brush." 

* Farmers' Bull. 183, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 



INDEX 



Accounts, household, 177 

balancing, 180 

closing, 181 

equipment for, 177 

forms of, 177-lsO, 183-189 

summaries of, 181 
Acetylene, 201 
Acids, 

effect on textiles, 249, 283 

in canning vegetables, 610, 617 

stains from, 287 
Adulteration, 

cotton, 308 

linen, 313 

sUk, 322 

wool, 317 
Air ga«, 201 
Albatross, 312, 319 
Albumin, 410 
Alkalis, 

effect on textiles, 249, 2S3 

in laundering, 255, 256 

stains from, 288 
Allspice, 101 
Almonds, 160, 421 
Alpaca, 316, 319 
Alum, in laundering, 258 
Aluminum utensils, 232 
Ammonia, 

for softening water, 252 

in laundering, 254 
Aniline blue stain, 289 
Anaemia, 430 
Apples, 160, 417, 422 

in fireless cookers, 219 

storage of, 584 
Apricots, 160, 422 

in fireless cooker, 219 
Architecture, 

elements of rural, 22 

relation to landscape, 21 
Armhole measurements, 339 



Arrangement, 

of furnishings, 90 

of kitchen utensils, 230 
Anows, as finishes, 369 
Artichokes, 421 
Asphalt stain (see tar), 303 
Asparagus, 421 
Astrakhan, 319 
Awning, 312 

Bacon, 160, 419 

sugar-cured, 624 
Bacteria, 579 
Baking batters and doughs, 479 

utensils for, 225 

yeast bread, 495 
Baking powder, 161 

composition, 476 

homemade, 476 

in batters and doughs, 476 

in pastry, 491 

proportion to be used, 476 

storage, 476 
Bananas, 100, 417, 422 
Barley and rice bread, 504 
Barley bread, 503 

Barley, oat, and rice flour bread, 504 
Barley, pearl, 159 
Basting, 

collar, 358 

rules for, 353 

skirt, 358 

sleeves, 355-358 

tailor's, 350 

waist, 354 
Bathroom, 

care of, 123, 124 
Batiste, 311 
Batters and doughs, 473 

baking, 479 

baking powder, 476 

classification, 473 



635 



(VM) 



INDKX 



hatU'n, (Imp hnftcru, 47.'{ 

••KKx. 47(» 

filling |>iiii.-<, 17!) 

fl..tir, 171 

formiilii^. IS'J 

iiiKPfdiiiifs, 17 I 

li<iui(l. 171 

mixing;. •)7S 

pour l)attcrs, 173 

sliortciiiiin, -177 

soda, 474 

soft doiiKlis, 474 

stiff doughs, 474 

sugar, 477 

utensils for bakinjr, 478 
Bavarian creams, .'>71 
Hay-window, 'SI 
Bean bread, 50;i 
Beans, IGl, 410, 421 

in fireless cooker, 219 
Bedford cord, 312, 319 
Bedrooms, 

character of, 99 

size of, 31 
Beds, 123 
Beechnuts, 424 
Beef, 420, 421 

corned, 628 

cuts of, 511, 517 

dried, 029 

in fireless cooker, 219 

pickled tongue, 029 

selection of, 510 
Beets, 101, 418, 421 
Belt, foundation, 359 
Bench, for laundry, 280 
Bengaline. 323 
Benzine, in laundering, 255 
Berrj' stain, cooked, 292 

fresh, 291 
Beverages, 465-472 

cocoa, 470 

coffee, 405 

fruit juices, 472 

tea, 408 
Bias bands, for undergarments, 372 
Biliousness, 429 
Biscuits, baking powder, 480 

frozen dessert, 574 
Blackberries, 422 
Blanching, 007 



BlanketH, wnsliiiiK of, 270 
Blaiiket-w(iMh. 270 
lil'iu gUH. 201 
Blood Htain, 2SS 
Blueberries, 422 
liluing. 

in laundering, 201, 2(i6 

.stain, 2.S!> 
Boiling |)oint of watir. 130 
lioiivia cloth, 319 
Borax, 

for softening water, 251 

in laundering. 255, 25H 
Boric acid, 5s0 

liotulinus in canned foods, 010 
Bouillon, 51.5 
liows, 400 
Braid, 

for undergarments. 372 
Bran, ff)r laundering, 2.54, 256 
Brazil-nuts, 424 
Bread, yeast, 416, 424. 495 

baking, 501 

barley, 503 

barley and rice, 50.'j 

barley, oat, and rice flour. 504 

bean, 503 

breadcrumb, .503 

brown, in fireless cooker, 219 

corn, 503 

fermentation, 499 

flour, 495 

ingredients, 495 

liquid, 498 

mixer. 499 

mixing and kneading, 498 

pans for baking, 225 

potato, 503 

proofing, 499 

recipes, 501 

rice, 503 

rolled oats, 503 

"rope," 500 

salt-rising. 505 

shaping, 499 

sponge method. 498 

straight-dough method, 498 

wheatless. 504 

white, 159, 430, 50l, 503 

yeast, 497 
Brilliantine, 317 



INDEX 



637 



Brioche, 483 
Broadcloth, 319 
Brocade, 323 
Brocatel, 323 
Brushes, 

care of, 124 

for kitchen use, 228 
Buckles for hats, 404 
Buckram, 320 

Building materials for body, 407, 409 
Bunting, 319 
Burlap for ceilings, 43 
Burying, 

method of storing vegetables, 586 
Butcher's linen, 315 
Butter, 159, 419, 423 

as growth promoter, 408 

as source of growth-promoting 
factor, 412 

cakes, 484 

food value compared with milk, 427 

in batters and doughs, 477 

in pastry, 491 

place in meals, 427 

preservation of, 582 

stain, 289 
Buttermilk, 423, 426 

in batters and doughs, 474 
Butternuts, 424 

Butter plate, placing on table, 242 
Butter substitutes, 427, 428, 477 
Buttonholes, bound, 370 

Cabbage, 101, 418, 421 

as source of growth-promoting 
factor, 412 

as source of lime, 411 

in tireless cooker, 219 

storage of, 587 
Cabinet, kitchen, 117 
Cakes, 423, 483-489 

butter, 484 

chocolate in, 485 

classification, 483 

cocoa in, 485 

fillings, 486 

flavoring, 486 

frostings, 486 

fruits in, 485 

ingredients, 484 

light, 482 



Cakes, nuts in, 485 

pans for baking, 225 

rich, 482 

sponge, 482, 483 

yeast, 483 
Calcimine, 

for ceilings, 43 

for walls, 40 
Calico, 311 
Calories, 

measure for fuel value of foods, 412 

portions of foods furnishing, 416- 
424 
Calves-foot jelly, 421 
Cambric, 311, 315, 371 
Candles, 200 

Candle wax, colored, stain, 290 
Candy, 

in diet, 431 

stages in cooking, 578 

temperature for cooking, 577 

to make fine-grained, 578 

utensils for cooking, 227, 578 
Canned foods, buying of, 445-454 

cans, 450 

color, 446 

corn, 449 

extra, 448 

extra standard, 448 

fancy, 448 

flavor, 446 

form, 447 

fruits, 450 

grading, 445 

labels, 451 

lima beans, 449 

locality where grown, 446 

medium of packing, 447 

okra, 449 

peas, 449 

pie fruit, 447 

preparation, 447 

pulp, 448 

puree, 448 

quality, 448 

quantity value, 452 

seconds, 448 

sirups, 447 

size of fruit or vegetable, 446 

soaked, 448 

spinach, 449 



638 



i.\i)i:x 



C'ainicii foods, standani iiradc. 117 

Htriiii; l>caiis, -I I'.t 

suKKcstioiiw for ronsiiiiKT, A.'}2 

swells, jr.] 

tcxturf, IMi 

tomatoes, -M!) 

trade names, -151 

trade terms, 44.S 
Caniiers, (iOl 
( 'aniiiiiK. 

acid in eannirin veKetaiiies, (ill, 
017 

air in can, (iOO 

Manchinn. (iOfl 

liotulinus, GIU 

cold dip. 607 

e<iiiipmcnt, 001 

fruit by cold-pack, 609. 61) 

fniit juices, 017 

prowth of micro-organisms, GOO 

hot-water canncrs, 601 

jams, 022 

jars, 604 

jelly, 620 

lye for rcmovinR skins, 611 

meat by cold-pack, 613 

methods, 608 

principles of, 599 

rubbers, 606 

safety in use of canned foods, 609 

score cards, 618 

sirup, 607 

soup stock, 614 

standards for, 608 

steam cookers, 601 

steam-pressure canners, 601, 602 

storing, 617 

testing jars, 605 

time-tables, 614-617 

vegetables by cold-pack, 612, 613 

water-seal canners, 601, 602 
Cans, 450 
Cantaloupe, 422 
Canvas, 312 

for ceilings, 43 
Capers, 563 

Carbon dioxide, leavening. 474 
Carpets, 75 
Carrots, 161. 418, 421 

in firoless cooker, 219 
Carving fish, 532 



f iiseiii, no. 420 
Cashmen-. 319 
Catchup. 423 
Cauliflower. 421 
Ceiling, 

bcftHK-il, 43 

color extendefl to side w;dl, 33 

metal, 4 1 

treatment of. 13 

wood. 44 
Celery. 161. 4 IS. 121 

as source of growth-jiromoting 
factor, 4 1 2 

wed, 161 

s^jurce of lime, 11 1 

storage of, 588 
Cellar, 11 

floor, 121 

for fruit storage, 583 

for storage, 121 

for vegetalile storage, 584 

sanitary condition of, 121 

walls, 121 
Centigrade scale, 132 
Cereals, 

as regulating food, 411 

as source of growth-promoting 
factor, 412 

as source of iron, 411 

as source of phosphorus, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

cooking of, 506-509 

food value of, 430 

in diet of nursing mother, 435 

in double boiler, 507 

in fireless cooker, 507 

place in meals, 430 

starch-rich food, 408 

time of cooking, 500 

to pop corn, 509 

uses for left-over, 508 

utensils for cooking, 507 

variations in cooking, 508 
Chairs, measurements of, 80 
Chalk, tailor's, 350 
Challis, 319 
Chambray. 312 
Chard, Swiss, 418 

as source of growth-promoting 
factor, 412 

as source of lime, 411 



INDEX 



639 



Charlottes, 571 
Cheese, 159, 420, 423 

source of lime, 411 

source of protein, 410 

use in meals, 427 
Cheese-cloth, 312 
Chemicals, for stain removal, 285 
Chenille, 323 
Cherries, 422 
Chervil, 564 
Chestnuts, 424 
Cheviot, 320 
Chicken, 420, 421, see poultry 

fat in batters and doughs, 477 

in fireless cooker, 219 
ChifTon, 323 

renovation, 403 
Children, 

adapting meals for, 431 

need for fine foods, 412 
Chimney seat, 31 
China closets, 116 
China silk, 323 
Chinchilla. 320 
Chintz, 312 
Chives, 564 
Chocolate, 159, 419, 424, 470, 471 

in cakes, 485 

nibs, 471 

stain, 290 
Choux paste, 483 
Chroma, 45, 46, 47 
Cinnamon, 161 
Clam chowder, 424 
Clams, 421 
Cleaning, 121-128 

apparatus, 126 

closet, 125 

lamps, 126 

materials for, 125 

piano case, 128 

stoves, 126 

windows, 127 
Clocks, 

alarm, 142 

care of, 141 

moving of pendulum, 138 

regulating, 139 

setting, 139 

to correct striking of, 140 

typos, 138 



Closet, 

cleaning, 125 

kitchen, 112-118 
Closings for undergarments, 379 
Cloth darning, 389 
Clothes lines, care of, 266 
Clothes-pins, care of, 267 
Clothing, 307-406 

amount of material, 342 

basting garments, 353 

belt, foimdation, 359 

cloth darning, 389 

color, 331-333 

cutting garnients, 352 

design, 330, 331 

economy in, 369 

equipment for sewing room, 334 

finishes for garments, 364 

fitting garments, 360 

for children, 381-388 

for girls, 384-388 

making of, 330-390 

making of infant's, 382 

making skirts even, 363 

materials for infants', 382 

patching, 388 

patterns, 340 

placing pattern on material, 344 

preparation of materials, 336 

preventing seams from sagging, 364 

readymade vs. home-made, 330 

seams, 358 

selection for children, 381 

stocking darning, 391 

taking of measurements, 338 

textiles, 307-327 
Cloves, 161 
Cluny lace, 372 
Coal range, 210 

firing, 210 

insulation, 210 

kindling fire, 210 
Cocoa, 159, 419, 424, 470 

chocolate, 471 

chocolate nibs, 471 

composition, 471 

directions for making, 471 

forms, 470, 471 

in cakes, 485 

shells, 471 

stain, 290 



640 



i.\i)i:x 



< 'oroanutfi, ■\'2i 
f'odfi.-h. 420. 4J1 
C'od-livcr oil, 

an growtli iiroiiKitcr, -lOS. 100 
C'ofTcf, l.'.!», n;.') 

luhiltcratioii, Kl.") 

(-.1(6 ail lait, lO? 

care, Mi'i 

clearing tin- li<iui(l, -Ki? 

(•oiiipdsitioii, 405 

(Icvclopmcrit r»f flavors, 4(16 

(lirortioiis for iii:ikiii<!, 4(10 

cRK-wIiitc for rlcariiit;, 407 

I'rciich drip, 407 

iced, 407 

percolator, 400, 407 

pots, care of, 407, 408 

stain, 290 
Cold dip, in canning, 007 
Colds, 458 
Collar, 

as finish, 304 

hasting, .'558 

measurements, 339 
Color, 

as background, 49 

characteristics of, 45 

chroma, 45, 40, 47 

cool, use of, 40 

for farmhouse, 21 

for interiors, 49 

hue, 45, 40 

importance of, 45 

in clothing, 331-333 

influences of, 40 

in hats, 399 

in kitchens, 118. 119 

in linen faVirics, 313 

intensity, 45. 40. 47 

of ceiling. 51 

of floors. 51 

of furnishings, 47-51 

of walls, 50 

reaction to, 45 

running, stain from, 290 

setting of, 268 

value, 45, 47 

warm, use of, 40 
Colored clothing. 

ironing of, 27.5 

washing of, 207- 209 



Con.soniind, 424 

ConHtipation. rare and feeding for, 459 

raus<'M, 4.59. 

diet for, 4.30 

druK«, 4.59 

lack of wat<T, 431 

liixative foods, 400 

salt water, 457 

treatment and diet, 400 
C'ookies, sheets f<jr baking, 220 
Cooking, 

cereals, 500-.509 

eggs, .5.34 -.54 2 

processes of, 211 

sugar, .570 

utensils for, 225 

vegetables, 543 
Copper utensils, 233 
Cork carpet, 77 
Corn, 421 

bread, .501 

flakes, 410, 424 

meal, 1.59, 219, 410. 424 

pufTed, 410 

sirup, in baking, 477 

starch, 159, 257, 410 

to pop, 509 
Cornices, 43 
Cottage cheese, 420 
Cottolene in pastr>-, 491 
Cotton, 

adulteration, 308 

fiber, 307 

mcrcerization, 309 

quality of materials, 307 

standard materials, 310-312 

tests for. 320-329 

uses of materials, 310 
Cottonseed oil in baking, 477 
Court houillf>n. 529 
Cover, individual, at table, 242 
Covert, 320 
Oackers, 1.59, 424 
Crack-filler for floors, 45 
Cracklings. 520 
Cranberries. 100, 422 
Crash. 312. 313 
Cream. 159. 419, 423 

as growth )iromoter, 409, 412 

in baking, 477 

place in meals, 427 



INDEX 



641 



Cream, sour, in baking, 47* 

stain, 299 

whipped, 571 
Cream of wheat, in tireless cooker, 219 
Cream of tartar, 161 
Creosote oil stain {sec tar), 303 
Crepe, 312, 371 
Crepe de chine, 323 
Cretonne, 312 
Crinoline, 312 
Crochet lace, 372 
Cross-ventilation in house, 15, 23 
Cucumbers, 41S, 422 
Cuffs, 364 

Cups, common drinking, 123 
Curing meat, 623 
Currants, 160 
Curtains (see draperies) 

lace, washing of, 272 
Custard, 423, 537 

baked, 537 

English, 538 

in tireless cooker, 219 

molded, 538 

royal, 538 

soft, 538 

Dado, 35 
Damask, 315 

cotton, 312 
Dampers in stoves, 208 
Darning, cloth, 389 

bias tear, 390 

large hole, 391 

straight tear, 390 

three-cornered tear, 390 
Darning, stocking, 391 
Dates, 160, 417, 422 
Denim, 312 
Density, 153 

influence of temperature on, 156 
Design, 

in clothing, 330, 331 

of farmhouse exterior, 21 
Desserts, 570-575 

Bavarian creams, 571 

biscuits, 574 

charlottes, 571 

frappes, 572 

freezing, 575 

frozen, 572-574 



Desserts, frozen puddings, 574 

fruits, 570 

gelatin, 570 

granites, 573 

ice creams, 573 

junket, 572 

mousses, 574 

packing frozen, 575 

parfaits, 574 

sherbets, 572 

sorbets, 573 

souffles, frozen, 574 . 

sponges, 571 

syllabubs, 572 

water ices, 572 

whipped cream, 571 

whips, 572 
Dextrin, in laundering, 259 
Diagonal, 321 
Diaper, 312 
Dietary, balanced, 425 
Diet, for the sick (see food for the sick) 
Dimensions, of rooms, 33 
Dimity, 312 
Dining room, 

care of, 123 

character of, 99 

size of, 31 
Dishwashing, 122 
Doilies, 

placing on table, 241 

shape for table, 241 
Doors, 

as part of wall, 37 

in exterior design, 25 

location in kitchen, 103 

number in kitchen, 104 

number in plan, 9 

number of, 37 

position of, 16 

relation to furnishing, 37, 42 
Dormer window, 31 
Double boiler 

for cereals, 507 

selection of, 229 
Doughs and batters, 473 
Doughnuts, 423 
Drafts in stoves, 208 
Draperies, 57-74 

color of, 61, 62 

for bedroom, 123 



642 



/M)i:x 



Drapi'rio.s, for ciLsciucnt windoWH, (iU 

)miii;iiiK of, (>."». (i(i, (is 

Itimth of, )'))> 

liiiiiic. •>'.», 7 1 

iiiiikiim, 7 1 71 

iiiiitcrial for, ")7, (V.i, (>'> 

iiicasiiriiiK of, (iS 7U 

iiunilxT ill window, ^y^i 

pattern of, (11, (■>2 

.selection of, 57, .Vi, (il, i'l- 

texture of, (j'2, 03 

to incTciuse jieinht of moms, -i') 

to reciuce liei^ht of rof)ins, ."io 
Drawers, 

ironing of, 274 
Drawer space, in kitchens, 117 
Dress, 

fittins, 361 

fomi, 334 

kitchen, 123 

suital)le materials for, 371 
Dressinps for salads (.sec salads.) 
Drill, 312 
DruKS, 

for constipation, 459 
Drying fruits and vegetables, 588-590 

circulation of air, 588 

equipment, 5S9 

fruits, .')S8, 590 

outdoors, 5S9 

.storafie, 591 

temperature, 588 
Dry measures, 1-30 
Duck, 312 
Duml)-waiter, 118 
Dusting, 124 
Dustless dusters, 124 
Dye stain, 290 

Egg-beaters, 

preparation f)f new, 232 

types of, 228 
Eggplant, 422 
Eggs. 159, 420, 424, 534-542 

as growth promoters, 409, 412 

as liquid, in batters and doughs, 474 

as source of iron, 411 

as source of lime, 410 

as source of phosphorus, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

beating, 535 



EggB, cure of, 534 

cooke<J ill shell, .535 

cof)king, 535 540 

custards, 537 

fondues, .54(1, .541 

fried, .53(i 

in l)atters and doughs, 470 

in diet <if ntirsidg mother, 434 

in .sauces. 5.')3 

keeping. 534 

lea%'eiiing i>ower, 470, 477 

left-over whites, .534 

left-over yolks, 534 

meat substitute, 531 

meringues, 540, 542 

omelets. 536 

place in meals. 429 

poached, 535 

preservation of. 581 

scrambled. 53.6 

shirred, 536 

souffles. 538 

stain, 291 

tests for freshness, 534 
Electricity. 

for lighting, 202 

high bills for, 149 

measurement of, 147 
Embroidery, 

for under garments, 372. 373 

ironing of. 274 

stitch. .306 
Enamelware. 

preparation for cooking. 231 

utensils. 234 
Environment, home, 29, 30 
Equii)ment. 

arrangement of kitchen, 105-110 

for canning, 001 

for dr.\iiig, 5.S9 

for kitchen. 11.5-118 

for laundry. 270- 2S1 

for salting vegetables, 592 

for sewing room, 334 

for stain removal, 285 
Exerci.se, relation to food needs, 413, 
431 

Fabrics, tests for, 320 
Fahrenheit scale, 132 
Farina, in fireless cooker, 219 



INDEX 



643 



Farmhouse, 

alterations of, 9, 27 

analysis of plans for, 9-19 

architecture of, 21, 22 

arrangement of structural parts of, 
11, 12 

cellars in, 1 1 

color of, 21 

corners in, diagonal, 13, 18 

cross-ventilation in, 15, 23 

design of exterior, 21 

difficulties in planning, 8 

doors in, 9, 16, 25 

hall, 9, 19 

hired man's room in, 18 

improvements, modern, 20 

inglework, use of, 16 

kitchen arrangement in, 17, 18 

living area of, 11, 16 

location of, 7, 8 

modern vs- old types, 19 

new types of, 1 1 

office in, 19 

path of travel in, 16 

plan for, 11 

porches of, 23, 24 

portals, 25 

proportion, general, 22 

roof lines of, 22, 23 

sleeping area of, 11, 14, 23 

structural elements of, 23 

terrace, use of, 16 

test of plan for, 18 

traditional types of, 8 

vistas in, value of, 11, 16 

washroom, in location of, 13 

woodroom, in location of, 13 

working area of, 11, 13, 16 

working distances, shortening of, 11 
Farmstead, 7, 8 

Fastenings for undergarments, 379 
Fat, 

as liquid, in batters and doughs, 474 

clarification, 522 

combinations of, 520 

digestibility, 520 

flavor, 520 

foods rich in, 408 

growth-promoting substance in, 412 

hardness, 520 

in batters and doughs, 477 



Fat, in cooking, 520 

in pastry, 491 

mutton, 521 

savory, 523 

temperature of cooking, 520 

trying out, 522 
Feathers, 

renovation, 403 
Felt, 320 

renovation of white, 403 
Fermentation, 

method of preservation, 598 

of bread, 499 

of vegetables, 599 
Fever, diet in, 462 
Fiber utensils, 230 
Figs, 160, 417, 422 
Filberts, 424 
Filing, of records, 176 
Fillet lace, 372 
Fillings for cakes, 486 
Finishes, 

arrows, 369 

bound buttonholes, 370 

collars, 304 

cuffs, 364 

embroidery stitches, 367 

for bottom of skirt, 367 

for drawers, 376 

for garments, 364 

for nightgown, 376 

for underskirt, 377 

for waist-line, 378 . 

set-in pocket, 368 

waist-line, 366 
Tireless cooker, 207, 214 

care of, 216 

commercftil vs. home-made, 214 

cost of home-made, 214 

directions for making, 215 

for cereals, 507 

for keeping foods cool, 224 

intelligent use of, 217 

materials for making, 215 

selection, 214 

time of cooking. 217 

time-table for, 219 

use of, 218 

use of radiators, 214 
Fires, 

care of, 191 



(VII 



i.\i)i:x 



Fires, kiiKilins <.f. 210 
Fish. ")J7 .WO 

hukiiiR, .'j1".( 

iH.iliiiK, ."jL'K 

l>oiiiii(;. 52K 

hrf)iliMK, .Wl 

rare. .')27 

ciirviiiK, F)'.V2 

chussificatioii. .'527 

clfaiiiiiK, .52S 

rooking, .'}28-5.30 

frying, 532 

proparation, .528 

sautding, 5.'n 

scioctioii. 527 

skinning, 528 
Fitting garment.*, .300 

hoii.sc-cln's;s. ;j()l 

shirt-waist, 30 1 
Flannel, 371 

baby, 320 

canton, 31 1 

French, 320 

ironing of, 275 

Shaker, 320 

silk-warp, 320 

washing of, 269 
Flannelette, 311 
Flavoring in cakes, 486 
Floors, 

bedroom, 123 

care of sewing room, 334 

carpets, 74 

color of, 44 

cork carpet, 77 

coverings, 74-77 

finish of, 44, 45, 118 

functions of, 74 • 

ingrain filling, 78 

kitchen, 118 

linoleum, 77 

number in house plan, 3 

perruaiKuicy of, 44 

rugs, 74, 75, 70 

to wax, 128 

wood-veneer carpet, 78 
Flour, 

bread. 474, 4itO, 495 

graham, 1.59, 490 

manufacture of, 490 

pastry, 474, 490 



Flour, white. l.'>9, 197 

whole-wheat. 159, 497 
l-'lowcrs, 

renovation for hat trimming, 402 
Fly-paper stain, 291 
Folds, 

for hats, 405 

French, 400 
Fondues, .510. .541 
Foods, 4(J7 033 

choice <jf, 425 

containing growth-promoting 
factors, 412 

for children, 437 

for infants, 435 

for nursing mother, 434 

for prospective mother, 433 

for the sick, 455-464 

fuel, 408 

laxative, 460 

methods of keeping cool, 220 

preservation of, 579-633 

regulating, 409 

rich in fat, 408, 419 

rich in iron, 411 

rich in lime, 410 

rich in jjliosphorus, 411 

rich in ijrotein, 409, 420 

rich in st.irch, 408, 419 

rich in sugar, 409, 417 

ser\'ing of, 244-246 

to supply needs of body, 408 

weights and meivsurcs of, 159-167 
Footing, for undergarments, 372 
Forks, 

handling at table, 247 

placing on table, 242 
Formulas, 

for batters and doughs, 482 
Foulard, 323 
Fowls, 420. Sec poultry. 
Frappd's, 572 

Freezers, preparation of new, 232 
Freezing desserts, 574 
Frencli dressing, 565 
Frostings for cakes, 486—489 
Frozen desserts, 572 
Frozen puddings, 574 ' 

Fruit juices, 

as beverages, 472 

canning, 019 



INDEX 



645 



Fruit juices, extraction, 619 
Fruits, 

as desserts, 570 

as regulating food, 411 

as source of iron, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

canned, 448 

canning by cold-pack, 609, 611, 612 

drying, 588, 590 

in cakes, 485 

in diet of nursing mother, 435 

place in meals, 427 

stain, 291, 292 

storage of, 583, 584 

utensiJs for stewing, 227 
Frying, utensils for, 227 
Fuel, 

advantages and disadvantages, 200 

consumption of, 193 

kinds for heating, 196 
Fuel foods, 408 

estimating needs of body for, 412- 
415 

need of nursing mother for, 434 
Fuller's earth, 

in laundering, 254 

soaps containing, 255 
Furnishing, home, 29-99 

adaptation to locality, 30 

arrangements of furnishings, 92, 
94 

ceiling, 43 

color, 45-51 

consistency in, 29, 30 

cornices, 43 

doors, 37, 42 

fitness to use, 30 

floors, 44 

floor coverings, 74-77 

furniture, 78-86 

hangings, 55-74 

individual problem, 29 

mantelpieces, 43 

pattern, 51-53 

permanence of, 29 

picture moldings, 43 

pictures, 8S-89 

plaster walls, finish of, 39, 40 

selection of furnishings, 54-91 

shape and proportion of rooms, 31, 
37 



Furnishing, simplicity in, 30 

size of rooms, 30, 31 

small furnishings, 90-91 

structural consideration of rooms, 
30-45 

structural surfaces, 37^5 

trim of walls, 41, 42 

wainscots, 40 

wall coverings, 54, 55 

windows, relation to, 37 
Furnace, 

care of, 197, 198 

pipes, 198 

size of, 194 
Furniture, 78-86 

construction of, 81-84 

design of, 81-84 

function of, 78, 80, 81 

relation to other furnishings, 88 

selection of, 78 

to diminish height of rooms, 35 

to diminish length of rooms, 37 

to increase height of rooms, 35 

to increase length of rooms, 37 

upholstery, 85 

Galatea, 312 
Garlic, 564 
Gas, 

cost an hour, 145 

in batters and doughs, 473 

for lighting, 201 

high bills for, 146 

measurement of, 143 
Gas range, 211 

adjustment of burners, 211 

to clean, 126 
Gauze, 312 
Gelatin, 160 
Gelatin desserts, 570 
Gingham, 311, 371 
Glass, 

curtains, 63, 65 

placing on table, 242 

preparation of new, 232 
Gloria, 320 
Glucose, in bodj% 408 
Glue, 

in laundering, 259, 260 

stain, 292 
Gluten. 473, 496 



CyU\ 



i.\i)i-:x 



Coat.s' h.iir. MCt 

Cioow, 421 

Ci(x>8elKTrii>8, 4'J2 

(iniiiuni flour, 4'M'> 

(■rains (mr n-rcalfi.) 

Clraiiitcs (tlcsscrtM), riT.'J 

Cirapc fruit, UK), -VSJ 

Grai>i' juice, -122 

Cirapcs. 100. 417, 422 

Grass stain, 2'.)2 

Gravy stain, 298 

Gretuse stain, 292 

Green foliaRc, stain, 202 

Greens, as souree of growth-promoting 

factor, 412 
Grenadine, .320 
Griddle cakes, 4,S2 
Growth-promoting factors, 412 
needs of nursing niotl:er, 434 
Gruel stain (,scc white sauces). 3()G 
Gum arabic, in laundering, 258, 259, 

201 
Gums, stain (sec resinous substances), 

301 

Halibut, 421 
Hall, 

center of plan, 9 

for downstairs bedrooms, 19 

furnishings of, 95 

passing of, large, 19 

size of, .31 
Ham, 420 

in firelcss cooker, 219 

sugar-cured, G24 
Hamburg steak, G30 
Handkerchief linen, 315 
Handkerchiefs, ironing of, 275 
Hangings, for windows and doors, 55- 
74 

purpose of, 55 

types of, 55 
Hats {sec millinery) 
Head-cheese, 627 
Heat, 191 

care of fires, 191 

cost of, 192 

radiation, 191 
Heating system, 193 
Hemstitching, machine for under- 
garments, 373 



Henriellii. 320 

Herbs, for MiladH, .503 

Home furnishing (irr furnisliiiiR) 

Homespun, .320 

Hominy. 1.59. 410. 424 

in fireh'ss cooker, 219 
Honey, 417, 427 
Hot-water canners, 001 
House, 

care of, 121-128 

cost of, 2, 25, 20 

estimating cost of, 20 

modern compared with old t>T)08, 
20. 27 
Hou.se furnishing (see furnishing) 
Household administration, relation to 

arrangement of space, 1 
Household records, 175 

accounts, 177 

classification of, 175 
House plan, 

economy of, 4, 11, 14, 15 

exposure of rooms. 3 

floors, number of, 3 

floor space in, organization of, 2 

for family of little children, 5 

living area of, arrangement of, 2 

one-floor, simple housekeeping of, 4 

shape of rooms in, 3 

sleeping rooms, privacy of, 3 

starting point of, 2 

value of sound, 1, 2 

windows in, 3, 18, 22, 23 
Huckaback, 315 
Hue, 45, 40 
Hydrogen peroxide, for stain removal, 

286 
Hydrometers, 1.54 

classes, 154 

use of, 155 

Ice cream, 424, .573 

flavorings, 573 

freezing, 575 

packing, 575 

stain, 294 

texture, 573 
Iceless. refrigerator, 221 
lees, 572 

Inii)rovements. modern, in houses, 20 
Indelible pencil stain, 294 



INDEX 



647 



India silk, 323 
Indigestion, 401 
Infants, feeding of, 435 
Inglenook, IG, 31 
Ingrain filling, 78 
Ink-removers, 286 
Ink stain, marking, 295 

printing, 295 

writing, 295 
Intensity, relation to color, 45, 46, 47 
Interior finish of kitchen, 118-119 
Iodine stain, 290 
Iron, 

foods rich in, 411 

needs of nursing mother, 434 

preparation of new, for cooking, 231 

utensils, 235 
Ironing, 273-276 

colored garments, 275 

covering of board, 274 

drawers, 274 

embroideries, 274 

equipment for, 273 

flannels, 275 

handkerchiefs, 275 

laces, 274 

napkins, 275 

night dresses, 274 

order of, 274 

pillow cases, 275 

sheets, 275 

shirt-waists, 274 

silk garments, 275 

skirts, 274 
. tablecloths, 274 

towels, 275 

waists, silk, 274 
Ironing-blanket, 280 
Ironing-board, 280 
Ironing machines, 277 
Iron-rust stain, 297 
Irons, 278 

Jams, 622 
Japanese silk, 323 
Jars, for canning, 604 

testing, 605 

types, 604 
Javelle water, 

for bleaching, 272 

formula, 273 



Javelle water, for stain removal, 285 
Jelly, 620 

dishes, on table, 243 

extractions of juice, 619 

pectin test, 620 

proportion of sugar, 621 

requisites, 620 

sealing, 622 

test when done, 622 

time of boiling, 621 

utensils for cooking, 228 
Jersey cloth, 323 
Junket, 572 
Jute, 325 

Kerosene, 209 

for bathroom, 123 

for lighting, 200 

for sinks, 122 

in laundering, 254, 255, 258, 265 
Kerosene stove, 209 

operation of, 210 
Kersey, 320 
Khaki, 312 
Ilitchen, 122 

alcove in, 101 

arrangement, 17, 18 

color scheme of, 118, 119 

combined with dining-room, 102 

doors, 103 

equipment, arrangement of, 105— 
110 

exposure, 102 

flooring, 118 

interior finish, llS-119 

lighting, 119 

measurements, 156-161 

paint in, 119 

pantries, 112 

planning of, 100-119 

plans, discussion of, 110-112 

range, 108, 109 

remodeling of, 101 

shape of, 102 

sink, 109 

size of, 31, 103 

storage space, 112-118 

table space in, 107 

use of, 100-102 

utensils, 225-239 

walls, 119 



648 



i\i)/:x 



Kitchen, windows, IfM-Kiri 

woodwork, lis 
Kniltrd n;irnii'nt«, 

wa.sliinn nf, 271 
Knives, 

for kit<-hcn use, '22H 

liandlinu at tal)lc, 248 

placing on tahli-, 242 
Kuniyirs, I2.'i 

LalK'ls on canned foods, 451 
Laces, 

lileaehinK of, 272 

ironinK of, 274 

for undernarments, .'?72 

renovation, 402 

washing of, 272 
Lare straw, 405 
Ladyfingers, 423, 483 
Lamb, 420, 421 

selection of, 510 
Lamps, 202, 205 

care of kerosene, 201 

cleaning of, 120 

selection of, 90, 91 
Lard, 1.59, 419, 027 

in baking. 477 

in pastry, 491 

substitutes, in baking, 477 
Laundering, 249-2S1 

acids, effect on fabrics, 249 

alkalis, effect on fabrics, 249 

lileaching, 273 

bluing, 261, 2G6 

equipment for, 276-281 

for stain removal, 2S3 

ironing, 273 276 

purposes of, 249 

room for, 276 

soap, 253-257 

soap substitutes and accessories, 
254-257 

softening water for, 250-2,53 

starch, 257-261, 266 

.supplies for, 281 

washing, 201-272 

water for, 250-253 
Lawn, 312 
Laxative foods, 400 
Lead-foil stain, 298 
Lead-i)encil stain, 296 



I^atlier. fruit, 591 
I/'uther .stain. 29H 

!Ls .soune of growth-j>roniotiiir 
factor, 410 

its .source of pliosphoniH, 411 

:us source of pr(»t<'iii, 410 

starch-rich food, 408 
Lemon juice, 161, 422 
Lemons, 417, 422 
Li-ngth mrasure, 131 
Lentils. Uil. 422 
Lettuce, 4 IS, 422 

source of lime, 411 
Lighting, 191, 201 

cost of, 204 

distribution of, 205 

kitchen. 119 

types, 201 
Lime, 410 

foods rich in, 410 

milk as source of, 41 1 

needs of nursing mother, 434 

stain from slacked, 298 
Linen, 371 

adulteration. 313 

color, 313 

fabrics, 315 

fiber, 312 

selection, 314 

sizing, 314 

tests for, 326-328 
Linoleum, 77 

for kitchen floors, 118 
Linon, 312 
Linsey woolsey, 320 
Litjuid mea.sures, 130 

testing, 130 
Liquids, density of, 153 
Liver, 421 

Living area, in house plans, 2, 11, 16 
Living-room, 30 

character of, 95, 97 

size of, 30 
Lobster, 421 
Longcloth, 311. .371 
Lye, 

for softening water, 251 

in laundering, 2.55 
Macaroni, 159. 416, 424 

in tireless cooker, 219 



INDEX 



649 



Macaroons, 423, 483 
Mackerel, 421 
Mackinaw. 320 
Malnutrition, 426 
Mantelpieces, 43 
Mantles, gas, 201 
Marketing, 438-454 

amount to buy, 440 

bulk vs. package, 441 

canned foods, 445-454 

discounts, 444 

good buying, 438 

grade of food, 439 

inspection on delivery, 444 

kind of food, 439 

labels, 439, 451 

package vs. bulk, 441 

price, 443 

records, 444 

servings of vegetables, in pound, 
440 

storage, 445 

units of sale, 442 

where to buy, 443 
Marmalade, 423 
Mayonnaise dressing, 566 
Meals, planning of, 407-437 

balance in, 425 

food combinations, 432 

foods for supplying needs of body, 
408 

food needs of body, 407 

for all members of family, 
431 

fuel requirement, 412 

iron requirement, 415 

lime requirement, 415 

phosphorus requirement, 415 

protein requirement, 414 

rules for, 425 
Measurements, 129-174 

for commodities, 129 

for electricity, 147 

for gas, 143 

for temperature, 131 

for time, 138 

for water, 151 

in garment making, 338 

kitchen, 156-161 

sealing of, 129 

testing of, 129, 130, 134 



Measures, 439 

and weights, equivalent, of foods, 
159 
Meat, 510-526 

as growth promoter, 409, 412 

as source of iron, 411 

as source of phosphorus, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

canning, 613 

care, 516 

cooking of, 512 

cooling, 622 

curing, 623 

curing beef, 627-629 

curing mutton and lamb, 629 

curing pork, 624-627 

fats in baking, 477 

fat in cooking, 519 

keeping, 519 

market trimmings, 519 

packing in fat, 623 

packing in snow, 623 

place in meals, 429 

preservation of, 622-633 

preservatives for curing, 624 

putrefaction in digestive tract, 429 

sausages, 630 

selection of, 510 

smoke-house for, 631 

smoking, 631 

soup-making, 514, 516 

temperature for keeping, 623 

tender cuts, 512 

tough cuts, 513 

utensils for cooking, 226 
Meat-juice stain, 298 
Meat substitutes, 427 
Medicine stain, 298 
Melton, 320 
Mending, 388-392 
Menus, 432, 433, 436, 437 
Mercerization, cotton, 309 
Meringues, 483, 540 

for desserts, 540 

for garnishes, 540 

for pies, 540 

Italian, 542 

snow eggs, 540 
Metals, 

protection of, 231 
Meteor, 324 



650 



IS I } EX 



Meter. 

electric. 147 

Kius, ii;i 

water. 151 
Metric sy.steni. Hi? 171 
Mi<Ti)-<)r>j!iiiiMiii.s, forms. (JOO 

ill rehitioii to spDilage, ."jT!) 
Mildew stain. 2'.»s 
Milk, l.")'.t, JJO. 4-_'.< 

allowance in meals, •IL'.'> 

as growth promoter, lO!*, 412 

!LS source of lime, 410 

as source of phosphonis, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

effeet of hoiliiiK on, 42.S 

food value compared with butter, 
4127 

for children, 4.'iG 

for infants, 4.3.") 

in diet of mirsiiiK mother, 434 

modified, for typhoid fever, 4G3 

place in meals, 427 

protein food, 410 

sour, in baking, 474 

stain, 299 

value of, 425 

ways of includinjj; in meals, 432 
Milliner>-, 393-40G 

brims, 396 

color, 399 

for round face, 397 

for square face, 398 

hair in relation to, 397 

line and form, 390 

placing on head, 394, 395 

proportion and balance, 393 

renovating materials, 400 

selection of hats, 393 

size of crown, 394 

size of hats, 390 

storing old hats. 400 

trimming, .399, 404 
Mineral substances, loss in cooking 

vegetables, 545 
Mirror, to increase length of rooms, 3.5 
Mohair, 318 
Moir6, 324 
Moisture, in relation to vegetable 

storage, 5iS4 
Molasses, IGO, 417, 423 

in baking, 174, 477 



Miildmg, to reduce height of roorim, 35 

Molds, in n latioM to MiK)ilaKe, 579 

Mof>-wririger, 122 

Mordatils ill laiinderinK, 207 

Mou.sses, 574 

Mucus stain, 29H 

Mud st.iiri, 29S 

Miiflihs, 4S2 

Mull, 312 

Mummy, 312 

Mushrooms, 420 

Muslin, 312, .371 

Mustard, IGl 

Mutton, 421 

curing, 029 

cuts of, 511, 518 

fat in cooking, 521 

in fireless cooker, 219 

selection of, 510 

Nainsook, 311, 371 
Napkins, 

ironing of, 27.5 

placing on table, 243 
Nasturtium, 504 
Nectannes, 422 
Nickel utensils, 230 
Night dresses, ironing of, 274 
Nutrition, and foods, 407-633 
Nuts, 

in cakes, 485 

source of protein, 410 

Oatmeal, 159, 424 
Oats, rolled, 159, 416 

bread, 503 

in fireless cooker, 218 
Office in farmhouse, 19 
Oil, 100, 419 

stain, (road), 302. (.SVe tar) 
Olive oil in baking, 477 
Olives, 419, 422, 423 
Omelets, 424, 536-537 

French, .530 

pu(T>% 537 

starchy foundation, 537 
One-hundred-ealorie portions, 

cakes, 423 

cereals, 424 

dairy products, 423 

desserts, 423 



INDEX 



651 



One-hundred-calorie portions, 
foods rich in fat, 419 
foods rich in protein, 420 

foods rich in starch, 416 

foods rich in sugar, 417 

fruits, 422 

meats, 421 

miscellaneous, 424 

nuts, 423 <^ 

pastry, 423 

pickles, 423 

puddings, 423 

succulent vegetables, 418 

sweets, 423 

vegetables, 421 
Onions, 161, 418, 422, 564 

as source of growth-promoting 
factor, 412 

as source of lime, 410 

in fireless cooker, 219 
Oranges, 160, 417, 422 
Organdie, 312 
Organic matter, removal from water, 

253 
Ovens, 

height of, 207 

insulated, 207, 211 

temperature of, 479 
Oxalic acid, for stain removal, 285 
Ox-bile, 253 
Oysters, 421, 532-533 

cleaning, 532 

cocktail, 533 

cooking, 533 

on half shell, 532 

opening, 532 

preparation, 532 

season, 532 

selection, 532 

serving, 533 

Packing frozen desserts, 574 
Paint, 

for floors, 44, 45 

for plaster walls, 39, 40 

for woodwork, 42 

in kitchen, 119 

stain, 298, 299 
Panama cloth, 320 
Panne, 324 
Pans, filling for baking, 479 



Pantries, 112-116 

food pantry, 114, 115 

pass pantry, 114, 115 

purpose of, 114 
Paper, 

for ceilings, 43 

for kitchen use, 230 

for walls, 40 

utensils, 230 
Paraffin, 

in laundering, 254, 255, 258 

stain, 300 
Parfaits, 574 
Parsley, 564 
Parsnips, 161, 418, 422 
Paste, fruit, 591 
Pastry, 490-494 
. baking powder, 491 

characteristics of good, 491 

classification, 490 

fat, 491 

flakiness, 492 

flaky, 493 

flour, 490 

ingredients, 490 

lightness, 491 

liquid, 490 

plain, 492 

puff, 494 

salt, 491 

tenderness, 492 

to make tender, 490 
Patching, 

hemmed, 388 

overhand, 389 
Pattern, 51-53 

characteristics of good, 51-53 

for floors, 53 

for walls, 53 

kinds of motifs, 52, 53 
Patterns for clothing, 

adjustments in, 342 

marking for basting, 348 

placing on material, 344 

to buy commercial, 341 

to test commercial, 341 
Peaches, 417, 422 

in fireless cooker, 219 
Peanut butter, 419 
Peanuts, 160, 424 

substitute for animal food, 410 



nr)2 



i\i)i:x 



Pears. 4L'.{ 

i'.-!us. lit;, lis. vn 

I'caii (Ic soic, 321 
l'<T!ins. .JL>4 
Pectin, (;•_>() 
Peneil >-taiii, 

ilKielll.le, LMIl 

lead, L".IS 
Pepper. IGl 
Percale, Ml 
Persfiiration stain, 301 
Phosphorus. 411 

foods rich in, 411 

needs of mirsiiiK niotlicr, V-W. 
Piano case, cleaning of. 12.S 
Pickles. AXi 

dishe-s on table, 243 

stain. '.ii)'i. Sec turmeric 
Picture moldings, 43 

to increase height of rooms, 35 

to reduce height of rooms, 35. 
Pictures 35, X8-90 

frames for, 89 

hanging of. 80. 90 

to increase height of rooms. 35 

to reduce height of rooms, .3.5 
Pie, 423 (see ijastry) 

crust baked without filling, 493 

pans for baking, 220 

two-crust, 493 
Pigs' feet, pickled, 62G 
Pillowcases, ironing of, 275 
Pineapples, 423 
Pine-nuts, 424 
Pipes, furnace, 198 
Piiiue. 312 
Pitch stain, 301 
Pits, 

for fruit storage, 584 

for vegetable storage, 586 
Plackets for undergarments. 379 
Plans for house (sec house plan, and 

farmhouse) 
Plaster walls, 

rough, 30 

.smooth, 39 

smooth, covered with paper or 
textiles. 40 

smooth, painted. 40 
Plate, placing on table, 243 



PluHh. 324 
Pocket. hM-t-in. 308 
I'ong<e. 324 
Popcorn. 424 
Poplin. 312. 324 
PoiMjvcrs. 4H2 
Porches. 24. 25 
Pork. 421 

brine salt, G26 

cuts of, 512. 518 

dry-cured. 026 

sausage. 030 

.selection of, 51 1 
Portals, 25 

Portieres. 01, 08. 09, 73, 74 
Pota-s-sium permanganate, for stain 

removal, 2S5 
Potato, 101. 410. 422 

bread, 503 

in tireless cooker. 219 

.starch for laundering. 257 

water for laundering. 2.04. 257 
Pottery utensils, 2.36 
Pot roasts, pans for cooking, 226 
Poultry, 511. 524-526 

canning, 013 

cleaning. 524 

cooking. 525 

dressing. 524 

selection of. 511. 524 

to roast chicken. 525 

to stew chicken, 525 
Preservation of food. 579-033 

butter, 582 

canning, 599-620 

causes for spoiling, 579 

drj-ing, 580 

drying fruits and vegetables, 588- 
592 

eggs. 581 

high temperature, 581 

low temperature, 580, 581 

meat. 022-631 

methods. 579 

preservatives. 580. 624 

salting vegetables. 592-.597 

storage of fruit. 583 

storage of vegetables, 584 
Pressing, 337 
Pressing boards. 3.34 
Pressure cooker as fuel-saver, 208 



INDEX 



653 



Proportion, 

changing apparent, 33 

in farmhouse, 22 
Protein, 

as source of energy, 409 

comparative value of various pro- 
teins, 410 

estimating daily allowance of, 414 

foods rich in, 410 

in stains, 283 

needs of nursing mother, 434 

proportion of animal and plant in 
meals, 415 
Pmnella, 320 
Prunes, 160, 417, 422 

in fireless cooker, 219 
Prussian blue stain, 289 
Pudding, 423 

in fireless cooker, 219 

frozen, 574 
Pumpkins, 422 

Putrefaction in digestive tract, 429, 
430 

Radiation, 191 
Radishes, 422 
Raisins, 160, 417, 422 
Ramie, 325 

tests for, 326 
Ranges (see stoves) 

ash removal, 108, 109 

location in kitchen, 107 

ventilating flue for, 108 
Raspberries, 423 
Ration, balanced, 425 
Records, household, 175 

accounts, 177 

classification of, 175 

keeping of, 176 
Refrigerators, 220 

best use of, 221 

current of air, 221 

iceless, 221 

insulation, 220 

location of ice compartment, 220 

location of icing-door, 220 

sanitary construction, 221 

selection of, 220 

size of ice compartment, 220 
Regulating substances, 407 

in fats, 408 



Renovating materials, for hats, 400 

Rep, 312 

Repair kit, 124 

Resin stain, 301 

Rhubarb, 4 IS, 422 

Ribbons, 

for hats, 405 

renovation, 402 

washing of, 272 
Rice, 159, 416, 424 

bread, 503 

in fireless cooker, 219 

starch for laundering, 258, 260 

water for laimdering, 254 
Rippleette, 371 
Roasts, pans for cooking, 226 
RoUs, 424 
Roof lines, 22, 23 
Rooms, 

exposure of, 3 

relation between three dimensions 
of, 33 

shape of, 2 

shape and proportion of, 31-37 

size of, 30 

sleeping, privacy of, 3 

structural consideration of, 30-45 

treatment of high, 33 

treatment of low, 35 

treatment of short, 35 

treatment of square, 35 
Root crops, 

storage of, 587 
"Ropiness" in bread, 500 
Rubbers, 606 
Rugs, 74-76 

color of, 75 

pattern of, 76 

size and proportion of, 76 

to diminish length of rooms, 37 

to increase length of rooms, 37 

to remedy color effect, 44 

Sage, 564 

Salad dressings, 564 

bacon, 569 

cooked, 568 

cream, 566 

French, 565 

mayonnaise, 566 

stain, 301 



654 



i.\i)i:x 



8<>u.s()!is for urfi-ii", r>('(4 
Salicylif arid, 

in raiiiiiiiK powders, .OSO 
Salmon. J2(). 121 
Sidt. IC.l 

(■f)iitaiiu'rs, on taltic, ~\li 

in cooking vcRctaMi's, .")J4 

l)ork, lirinc, (i'Jd 

-risinK bread, .'JO.'j 

water, for eonstii)ation, WJ 
Sal tint? vegetables, 51)2-507 

care, 598 

equipment, .502 

fermentation in aeid brine, .597 

fermentation with dry salting, 594 

oil on surfaee, .59G 

parafTm on .surfaee, 595 

preparation for table, 599 

preventing .scum, 595 

storage, 598 

•without fermentation, 597 
Sarcenet. 324 
Sash curtains, G.'3-G5 
Sateen. 312, 371 
Satin, 324 
Sauces, 552-560 

brown, 553, 557 • 

butter, 553, 556 

sirup, 561 

solid, 562 

sweet, 559-561 

thickened with egg, 5.53, 558 

white, 552, 554, 555 
Sausages, 630 
Saut^ing, 

utensils for, 227 
Scales, weighing, 129 

capacity, 129 

use, 129 
Scorch stain, 301 
Score cards for canned food, 618 
Scrim, 312 
Seams, 358 

fell, 373 

for undergarments, 373, 375 

Frondi, 373 

plain, 373 

to prevent sagging, 364 
Serge, 320 



Sewing Miaehine, .'l.'M 

aiitornatie, 334 

lock hfitch. 331 

operati(»ii of lock stitch, 334 
Sewing-room, 
■ equipment for, 331 
Sh.id. 4L'l 

Shades f<»r windows, .55, 50 
Sheeting, 310 
Sheets, ironing of, 275 
Shelving, arrangement of, 110 
SherU-ts. 572 

Shirt-waists, ironing of, 274 
Shoddy, .S18 
Shoe-dressing stain, 302 
Shortening, in baking, 477 
Shrinking materials, 336 
Sicilian, 320 

Silence cloth, for table, 241 
Silesia, 312 
Silk, 371 

adulteration, 322 

artificial, 324, 326 

fabrics, 323 

fiber, 321 

ironing of, 275 

tests for, 326-329 

washing of, 271 
Silver nitrate stain (.vcc ink, marking), 

295 
Silver utensils, 237 
Sinks, 109 

care of, 122 

use of, 122 
Sirup, 423 

for canning fruit, 608 
Sizing, 

cotton, 308 

linen, 314 
Skewers, for kitchen use, 230 
Skins of fruits, removal in canning, 

611 
Skirts, 

amount of material for, 343 

basting, 358 

ironing of, 274 

making even at bottom, 363 

measurements, 340 

to make even at bottom, 363 
Sleeping area in house plans, 11, 14, 

23 



INDEX 



655 



Sleeping-rooms, 123 
Sleeve, 

basting, 355, 357 

board, 280 

form, 334 

measurements, 340 
Smoking meats, 630-633 
Soap, 253-256 

accessories, 254-250 

bark, 254 

borax, 255 

homemade, 254, 256 

jelly, 257 

naptha, 255, 265 

solutions, 256 

stain, 302 

substitutes, 254-257 
Soapstone, 

utensils, 237 
Soda, 161 

in baking, 474 

in cooking vegetables, 545 

proportion to be used, 474 

ways of adding, 475 ' 

with baking powder, 475 
Sofa pillows, 91 
Soot stain. 302 
Sorbets, 573 
Souffles, 538-539 

custard, 540 

frozen, 574 

fruit, 540 

plain, 538 

vegetable, 540 
Soup, 424 

brown stock, 515 

bouillon, 515 

canning of, 613 

classification, 514 

meats for, 516 

stain, 303, 306 {see white sauces) 

use in meals, 432 

white stock, 515 
Soy beans, 

as growth promoter, 409, 412 

substitute for animal food, 410 
Spaghetti, 442 
Spearmint, 564 
Specific gravity, 153 

influence of temperature on, 156 
Spinach, 418, 422 



Spinach, as source of growth-promot- 
ing factor, 412 

as source of lime, 411 
Sponge cakes, 

baking, 484 

mixing, 483 
Sponges (desserts), 571 
Sponging materials, 336 

for stain removal, 284 
Spoons, 

for kitchen use, 229 

handling at table, 248 

placing on table, 242 
Spores, 600 
Squash, 418, 422 

storage of, 588 
Stain removal, 282-306 

acids, 283, 287 

alkalis, 283, 288 

aniline blue, 289 

asphalt (sec tar), 303 
paint, 303 

berries, cooked, 292 
fresh, 291 

blood, 288 

bluing, 289 

butter, 290 

candle wax, colored, 290 

chemicals, use of, 285 

chocolate, 290 

cocoa, 290 

coffee, 290 

cream, 299 

creosote oil (see tar), 303 

dye, 290 

egg, 291 

equipment for, 286 

fly paper, sticky, 291 

fruits, cooked, 292 
fresh, 291 

glue, 292 

grass, 292 

gravy, 298 

grease, 292 

green foliage, 292 

gruel (see white sauces), 306 

gums (see resinous substances), 301 

hydrogen peroxide, 286 

ice-cream, 294 

indelible pencil, 294 

ink, 295 



656 



i.\dj:x 



Slain, iiik-rfiiiovcrs, coimiKTciiil, !.'>>(> 
iocliiif, li'U) 
iroii-nist, 207 
.lavfllc water, 2S.'j 
lauiidrriiiK. 2S4 
lead foil, 297 
lead ix-nril, 298 
leather, 29S 
lime, slaeked, 298 
meat juice, 298 
medicines, 298 
mildew, 298 
milk, 299 
mucus, 299 
mud, 299 
oxalic acid, 285 
paints, 299, :i()() 
paraffin. :<()() 
I)eneil, indelible, 294 

lead, 298 
perspiration, .301 
pickles (sec turmeric), 'M)l 
pitch, 301 

potassium permanKanate, 285 
protein in stains, 282 
Pnissian blue, 288 
resins, .301 

road oil (sec tar), .303 
running colors, 290 
salad dressing, 301 
scorch, 301 
shoe-dressings, 302 
silver nitrate (fee ink, marking), 295 
soap, 302 
soot, 302 
soup, 303 

cream (sec white sauces), 30(> 
sponging, 284 
stove-polish, 303 
sugar sirups, 303 
tar, 303 
tea, 303 
tobacco, 304 
tomato vine, 304 
turmeric, 304 
ultramarine, 289 
unknown stains, 287 
varnishes, 299 
vaseline, 305 
verdigris, 305 
vinegar (see acid), 287 



Stain, walnut, black, 305 

water, 3(«> 

water color paint.s, lifX) 

wax, parafTm, 3(K) 

white sauces, 30r( 

whitewash (ncc ulkalio), 288 

wine (ace fruit, fresh), 291 
Starch, 

foofls rich in, 40H 

in laundering, 257-2G1 

water, for cleansing, 257 
Steam cookers, (iOl, 003 
Steam pressure, (iOl 

canners, 001, 602 
Steel utensils, 235 
Stew, utensils for cooking, 227 
Stock, soup, 

l)rown, 514 

white, 514 
Stocking darning, 391 
Storage, 

canned foods, 617 

dried foods, ,591 

space in kitchen, 112-118 
Stoves and cookers, 207-219 

coal, 210 

dampers, 208 

drafts, 208 

firclcss cookers, 214 

gas, 211 

height, 207, 208 

kerosene, 209 

selection of, 207 

to clean, 126 

to oil, 126 

utensils for fuel-saving, 208 

wood for fuel, 20S 
Straws, bleaching, 401 

cleaning, 401 

for hats, 401 

renovating, 400 
Strawberries. 417. 423 
Structural features, to diminish length 

of rooms, 37 
Structural surfaces, 37-45 
Succotash, 422 
Suet. 160, 520 

in pastry, 491 
Sugar, 160, 417. 423 

cooking. .576-.578 

craving for. 431 



INDEX 



657 



Sugar, foods rich in, 409 

food value of, 431 

in baking, 477 

kinds of, 576 

place in meals, 431 

produced in body, 409 

sirup stain, 303 

stages in cooking, 578 

temperature for cooking, 578 

use by body, 409 

utensils for cooking, 578 
Supplies for laundry, 281 
Sweaters, washing of, 271 
Sweeping, 124 
Sweet basil, 564 
Sweets, 

place in meals, 430 
Swiss, dotted, 

adulteration, 308 
Syllabubs, 572 

Tapioca, 161, 423 
Tables, kitchen, 106, 107 
Tablecloths, ironing of, 274 

placing on table, 241 
Table manners and customs, 247, 248 

handling table equipment, 247 

serving children, 247 

serving guests, 247 

serving men and women, 247 
Table service, 244-246 

clearing the table, 246 

informal, 246 

order of serving, 247 

passing food, 244, 245 

placing food, 245 

removing dishes, 245 

semi-formal, 245; 246 
Table setting, 240-244 

butter-plate, 242 

chairs, 244 

covering for table, 240 

cream and sugar servers, 244 

cups and saucers, 244 

forks, 242 

glass, 242 

individual cover, 242 

jelly dishes, 243 

knives, 242 

napkin, 243 

pickle dishes, 243 



Table setting, plate, 243 

pot for beverage, 244 

relation of covers, 243 

salt-containers, 243 

silence cloth, 241 

silver for service, 244 

space for cover, 240 

spoons, 242 

with doilies, 241 

with tablecloth, 241 
Table space, 

in kitchen, 107 
Taffeta, 324 
Tailor's basting, 350 
Tailor's chalk, 350 
Tailor's tacks, 352 
Tarlatan, 312 
Tarragon, 564 
Tar stain, 303 
Tartans, 320 
Tatting, 

for undergarments, 372 
Tea, 159, 468 

classification, 468 

clouding, 470 

composition, 408 

directions for brewing, 469 

grades, 468 

how to judge, 468, 470 

iced, 470 

punch, 470 

Russian, 470 

serving, 470 

stain, 303 

storage, 469 
Temperature, 

for baking yeast bread, 500 

for cooking sugar, 577 

for drying, 588 

for fruit storage, 584 

for preserving meat, 623 

for vegetable storage, 582 

measurement of, 131 

table of, 135, 136 
Terrace, use of, 16 
Tests for fabrics, 326 

burning, 328 

color, 327 

feel, 326 

strength, 326 

tearing, 328 



C58 



IXDEX 



T.-xtil.'s, 307-329 

nrtificial silk, '.i2i 

<<.tt()ii, W7 

jiitc. 32". 

linen, 312 

ramie. 325 

.silk, 321 

tests fur, 326 

weave, 329 

wool, 315 
Thermometer, 

hath, 132 

eaiidj-, 133 

eiiiii.al, 132 

milk, 133 

outdoor, 131 

oven, 133 

room-temperature, 131 

tests for, 134 
Thermos bottles, 218, 224 
Time, measurement of, 138 
Tinware, 237 

preparation of new, for eooking, 231 
Tobacco stain, 301 
Tomatoes, 418, 422 
Tomato-vine stain, 304 
Tongue, 

pickled beef, 029 

sugar-cured, 024 
Toothpicks for kitchen use, 230 
Toques, 304 
Torchon lace, 372 
Towels, 

ironing of, 275 

kitchen, 123 
Tracing wheel, 348 
Travel, path of, 16 
Trench, for vegetable storage, 580 
Trim of walls, 37, 41, 42 
Trimming of hats, 398, 404 

bows, 400 

buckles, 404 

folds, 405 

lace straw, 405 

ribbons. 405 
Trimmings for undergarments, 372 

bias bands, bindings, facings, 372 

braid, 372 

embroideries, 372 

hand embroidery, 373 

laces, 372 



Trimmings, maeliine hemstitehinR, 

373 
tatting, 372 
Trout, 421 

Tuberculosis, diet in, 463 
Tubs, laundry, 279 
Tulle. 324 

Tumbler, placing on table, 242 
Turbans, 394, 395 
Turkey. 421 
Turmeric stain, 304 
Turnips. 418. 422 
Turpentine-, in laundering. 2.j5. 250, 

259. 205 
Tweed. 320 
Typhoid fever, diet in. 403 

Undergarments. 

construction of. 373 

fastenings for, 379 

finishes for. 370. 377 

making of. 309-381 

materials for, 371 

jjlackets and closings, 379 

seams for, 373 

selection of, 371 

top finishes for, 375 

trimmings, 371, 372 

uses of seams on, 373 
Ultramarine stain, 289 
Upholstery, 85 
Utensils, 

advantages and disadvantages of 
materials, 232-239 

arrangement, 231 

brushes, 229 

care of, 232 

double boilers. 229 

egg-beaters, 228 

fiber, 230 

for baking, 225, 478, 479 

for candy-making, 228 

for cooking meats, 226 

for frying. 227 

for fuel-saving. 208 

for jelly-making. 228 

for laundering. 281 

for sauteing. 227 

for stewing. 227 

for sugar cooking. 578 

for various cooking processes, 225 



INDEX 



659 



Utensils, kitchen, 225-239 
knives, 22S 
paper, 230 

preparation of new, 231 
protection of metals, 232 
selection, 225 
skewers, 230 
spoons, 229 
toothpicks, 230 

Valances, 61, 66, 69, 72 

to reduce height of room, 35 
Valenciennes lace, 372 
Value, in relation to color, 45, 47 
Vanilla, 161 
Vaseline stain, 305 
Vases, selection of, 90 
Veal, 420, 421 

selection of, 510, 516 
Vegetables, 543-549 

as regulating food, 411 

as source of iron, 411 

as source of protein, 410 

blanching, 545 

boiling, 546 

canned, 449 

canning by cold-pack, 612, 614, 616 

care, 543 

classification, 543 

cooking, 544 

drying, 588-592 

in diet of nursing mother, 434 

in season, 550, 551 

losses in cooking, 545 

mild-juiced, 544 

one-hundred-calorie portions of, 418 

place in meals, 429 

rich in starch, 408 

salt in cooking, 544 

salting, 592-597 

soda in cooking, 545 

steaming, 546 

strong-juiced, 544 

storage of, 584-586 

utensils for stewing, 227 
Vegetable oils, in pastry, 491 
Vegetable oysters, 422 
Veils, renovation, 403 
Velour, 321 
Velvet, 324 

renovation, 402 



Velveteen, 312, 324 

Ventilation, 

cellar, for fruit storage, 583 

in relation to storage of vegetables, 

584 
system, 193 

Verdigris stain, 305 

Vessels, unglazed earthen for keeping 
foods cool, 223 

Vicuna, 321 

Vinegar stain, {see acid), 287 

Vista, 

to increase length of rooms, 35 
value in house plans, 11, 16 

Vitamines, 412 

needs of nursing mother, 435 

Voile, 321 

Wainscots, 40, 41 

to reduce height of rooms, 35 
Waist-line finish, 366 
Waists, 

amount of material for, 34 

basting, 354 

fitting, 361 

measurements, 338 

silk, ironing of, 273 

suitable materials for, 369 
Wall coverings, 54, 55 
Wall paper, 

borders in, 55 

selection of, 54, 55 

striped, to increase height of rooms, 
35 
Walls, 

as structural surfaces, 37 

bedroom, 123 

cellar, 121 

kitchen, 119 

plaster, 39, 40 
Wall spaces, relation to furnishing, 37 
Walnuts, 160, 419, 424 

stain, black, 305 
Washing-soda, 

for softening water, 251 

for toilet, 125 

in laundering, 255 
Washroom, 13, 110 
Washing, 262-273 

boiling, 265 

blankets, 270 



ii(U) 



JMJh'X 



Wu-sliiiin. I'liiitm, 205 

(•(.l(.r. .1 k'u.kI.s. LT.l'. 2t)7-2()'.» 

(laiiiix'iiiiiK. -'<)", 274 

day for, 2()1 

(lircrtions for, 2tJ4-2(J7 

(lr\'iii>;, 20*) 

flannels. 20.3. 2G9 

frccziiin, 207 

liandkcrfliicfs used for colds, 202 

haiminK. 200 

knitted garments, 271 

laees. 272 

laco curtains, 272 

marhinos, 277 

powders, 2."),^ 

I)reparation of clothes for, 202 



rihhr 



ns, _'(Z 



rinsinc. 205 

silk, 271 

soakiiip, 202 

starching, 200 

sweaters, 271 

temperature of water, 203 

white goods, 202 

woolens, 209-270 
\Vaste-l)askets, 01 
Water, 15'.» 

boiliuK ijoint of, 135 

for laundering, 250-253 

hard, 2.50 

need of body for, 431 

organic matter, removal of, 253 

soft, 250 

softening of, 251-253 

stain. 300 
\\"ater-eolor paint, stain, 300 
Water-glass, for preserving eggs, 

5M 
A\'atermelon, 423 
A\'ater-seal canners, 001, 004 
Water-soluble growth-promotiug sub- 
stance, 412 
Wax, 

for hard woods, 42 

for laundering, 25.S 

stain, paraffin, 300 
Waxing of floor, 128 
Weave, 328 
Weighing scale, 129 
Weighting, 

cotton, 308 



Weighting, silk. 322 

W eights. 4:iK 

Weights an<l nieasurcH, 

of f<H><l«, 1. 59 105 

tables of, 100-174 
Wheat, 410. 424 

cracked, in finle.ss cooker, 219 

for flour, 495 

milling of, 490 

sl.irch for luundering, 257 
Wheat flour, 410 
\\'heatless yeast breads, 504 
Whey, 423" 427 

in baking, 474 
Whipcord. 321 
Whips (desserts). 572 
White bread, .501, 503 
White flour, 490 
White-sauce stain, 300 
Whole wheat, 1.59 
Whole-wheat flour, 490 
Windows, 

area, 37 

area f)f, in kitchen, 104 

arrangement of, 3, 18, 23 

as part of wall. 37 

cleaning of. 127 

function of, in design, 22 

in rooms under sloping roof, 2.3 

locatir)n in kitchen, 104 

painting of, 22 

relation to furnishing. 37 

t^•pcs in kitchen, 104 
A\ood, 

comi)arative heat value, 208 

finishes for, 42 

for floors, 44 

for furniture, 82. 83. 85 

for kitchen floors, 118 

ff)r trim. 41 

painted for harmony, 42 

selection for fuel, 208 

utensils, 238 

weight of cord, 209 
Woodroom. location of, 13 
Woofl-veneer carpet, 78 
Woodwork, 41, 119, 122 
Wool. 

adulteration, 317 

fiber, 315 . 

materials, 319 



INDEX 



661 



Wool, shoddy, 318 

tests for, 326, 328 
Woolens, 318 

washing of, 269-271 
Working area in house plans, 11, 

16 
Working distances, shortening of, 

house plans, 11 
Worsteds, 318 

unfinished, 321 

finished, 321 
Wringer, 280 



Yeast, 497 

bread (see bread) 
compressed, 497 
dry, 497 
13, function in bread-making, 497 

in relation to spoilage, 579 
in Hquid, 497 

Yellow wash, for smoked meats, 633 

Zibeline, 321 

Zinc, for kitchen use, 239 

Zweibach, 424 



Printed in the United States of America 



THE following pages contain advertisements of a few 
of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. 



Two Textbooks of the House- 
hold Arts 

BY HELEN KINNE, Professor, and ANNA M. COOLEY, 

Associate Professor of Household Arts Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University 

Cloth, i2mo, ill. $1.10 

Foods and Household Management 

Treats specifically of foods, their production, sanitation, cost, nu- 
tritive value, preparation, and serving, these topics being closely in- 
terwoven with the practical aspects of household management; and 
they are followed by a study of the household budget and accounts, 
methods of buying, housewifery, and laundering. It includes about 
160 carefully selected and tested recipes, together with a large num- 
ber of cooking exercises of a more experimental nature designed to 
develop initiative and resourcefulness. 

The book is new, practical, and economical. It is well illustrated 
and attractively bound. 

Shelter and Clothing 

This book takes up fully, but with careful balance, every phase of 
home-making: location, structure, plan, sanitation, heating, lighting, 
decorating, and furnishing. The second part is devoted to textiles, 
sewing, [and dressmaking. Sewing, drafting, designing, fitting, and 
cutting are treated in considerable detail as is also the making of the 
personal budget for clothing. 

The authors hold that harmony will be the keynote of the home in 
proportion as the makers of the home regard the plan, the sanitation, 
the decoration of the house itself, and as they exercise economy and 
wisdom in the provision of clothing. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Some Aspects of Food Economy 

By MARY S. ROSE 
Everyday Foods in War Time ^^^ 

Tliis litlle Ijook was wriUcn in response to a re- 
quest for "a war message about food." It gives a 
simple explanation o( the part which some (^f our 
common foods play in our diet, and points out how 
the necessary sa\ing of fat, fuel, sugar, and meat can 
be made without a loss of health or strength. 

There are chapters on the Milk Pitcher in the 
Home; Cereals We Ought to Eat; ]\lcats We Ought 
to Save; The Potato and Its Substitutes; Are Fruits 
and Vegetables Luxuries? Sugar and Spice and 
Everslhing Nice; On Being Economical and Pa- 
triotic at the Same Time. 

Feeding the Family ^~"' 

This is a clear concise account in simple everyday 
terms of the ways in which modern knowledge of the 
science of nutrition may be applied in ordinar\' life. 
The food needs of the members of the t>'pical family 
group — men, women, infants, children of various 
ages — are discussed in separate chapters, and many 
illustrations in the form of food plans and dietaries 
are included. The problems of the housewife in 
trying to reconcile the needs of different ages and 
tastes at the same table are also taken up, as are the 
cost of food and the construction of menus. A final 
chapter deals with feeding the sick. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



The Food Problem 

By VERNON KELLOGG and ALONZO E. TAYLOR 

$1.25 

" Food is always more or less of a problem in every phase of its production, 
handling, and consumption. It is a problem with every farmer, every trans- 
porter and seller, every householder. It is a problem with every town, state, 
and nation. And now very conspicuously, it is a problem with three great 
groups; namely, the Allies, the Central Empires and the Neutrals; in a word, 
it is a great international problem." 

These sentences from the introduction indicate the scope of " The Food 
Problem " by Vernon Kellogg and Alonzo E. Taylor. 

Both authors are members of the United States Food Administration. Dr. 
Kellogg is also connected with the Commission for relief in Belgium and pro- 
fessor in Stanford University. Mr. Taylor is a member of the Exports Admin- 
istrative Board and professor in the University of Pennsylvania. The preface 
is by Herbert Hoover, United States Food Administrator and Chairman for the 
Commission of Relief in Belgium. 

The food problem of to-day of our nation, therefore, has as its most con- 
spicuous phase an international character. Some of the questions which the 
book considers are : 

What is the problem in detail ? 

What are the general conditions of its solution ? 

What are the immediate problems and particulars which concern us, and 
are within our power to affect ? 

And finally, what are we actually doing to meet our problem ? 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Introduction : The International Problem. 
Pari I. The Problem and the Solution. 

Chapter I. The Food Situation of the Western Allies and the United States. 
II. Food Administration. 

III. How England, France, and Italy Are Controlhngand Saving Food. 

IV. Food Control in Germany and Its Lessons. 
Part II. The Technology of Food Use. 

V. The Physiology of Nutrition. 
VI. The Sociology of Nutrition. 
VII. The Sociology of Nutrition ( Continued'). 
VIII. Grain and Alcohol. 
Conclusion : Patriotism and Food. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Ayeaue New York 



Interior Decoration for the Small Home 

Bv AMY L. Rf)LI F.. M.A. 

Illustr,itr<L fi.j'; 

Instead of describing in great detail the very expensive 
furniture aiul rugs which can he purchased only b\' the 
few, the author dwells rather ujion the general principles 
which ai)i)ly in all cases and treats specifically of such 
furnishings as are suitable in the homes of people of mod- 
erate means. Among the topics included are walls and 
ceilings, windows, floors, rugs and carpets, furniture, fire- 
places, lamps, and lighting fixtures. A chapter on cabinet 
woods is a special feature. The material is organized in 
such a manner as to make it useful both as a text-book and 
as a practical guide in the furnishing of a home. The book 
is fully illustrated and shows in an unusually practical 
manner how the rules of art may be applied in the decora- 
tion and furnishing of all homes. 



Till-: MACMILLAX COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



Domestic Architecture 

By LAWRENCE E. ROBINSON 

Assistant Professor of Architecture in Oregon Agricultural College 

Illustrated, %i.^o 

A clear, concise, and practical treatment of the general 
subject of the house, including the history of domestic 
architecture and the development of the typical styles 
found in the United States, building sites, exterior and 
interior house design, character and mouldings, building 
materials, finish materials, house construction and interior 
treatment, heating, lighting, plumbing, and other equip- 
ment, cost of dwellings, and the relations of owner, archi- 
tect, and contractor. The work is illustrated by numerous 
plans and includes directions for making drawings, and a 
series of sketch problems and problems in design. No 
technical preparation is assumed. While it is especially 
adapted for use as a text in courses on The House, it will 
be found both interesting and practical for all those who 
are privileged to plan or remodel the houses in which 
they live. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


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L. 


D 014 182 112 A • 



